The relevance of N fertilization for the amount of total greenhouse gas emissions in sugar beet cultivation

The agricultural sector is highly affected by climate change and it is a source of greenhouse gases. Therefore it is in charge to reduce emissions. For a development of reduction strategies, origins of emissions have to be known. On the example of sugar beet, this study identifies the main sources and gives an overview of the variety of production systems. With data from farm surveys, calculations of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in sugar beet cultivation in Germany are presented. Emissions due to the production and use of fertilizers and pesticides, emissions due to tillage as well as field emissions were taken into account. All emissions related to the growing of catch crops during fall before the cultivation of sugar beet were also included. The emissions are related to the yield to express intensity.The median of total GHG emissions of sugar beet cultivation in Germany for the years 2010–2012 amounted to 2626 equivalents of CO₂ (CO₂eq) kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ when applying mineral plus organic fertilizer and to 1782 kg ha⁻¹ when only organic fertilizer was applied. The CO₂eq emissions resulting from N fertilization exclusively were 2.5 times higher than those caused by diesel and further production factors. The absence of emissions for the production of organic fertilizers led to 12% less total CO₂eq emissions compared to the use of mineral fertilizer only. But by applying organic fertilizer only, there were more emissions via the use of diesel due to larger volumes transported (126 l diesel ha⁻¹ vs. 116 l ha⁻¹ by applying mineral fertilizer exclusively).As there exists no official agreement about calculating CO₂eq emissions in crop production yet, the authors conclude that there is still need for further research and development with the aim to improve crop cultivation and crop rotations concerning GHG emissions and the therewith related intensity.     

干旱地区农田生态系统土壤温室气体排放机制

CO2、CH4和N2O是目前几种最主要的温室气体,在对全球气候变暖贡献中,农业作为重要的温室气体排放源对其有不可低估的作用。一般而言,旱地农田生态系统是大气CO2和N2O的排放源,黄土高原等旱地是CH4的吸收汇。CO2排放主要包括植物呼吸作用和土壤呼吸作用;CH4排放包括有机物的还原和氧化吸收两个过程;N2O排放包括硝化作用和反硝化作用两个过程。土壤微生物、土壤水分、土壤温度、土壤质地、施肥等均从不同角度影响着温室气体的释放与吸收。近些年,免耕、秸秆还田、地膜等保护性耕作技术在干旱地区农田生态系统中得到广泛应用。其中免耕可以减少CO2和N2O的排放量,增加土壤对CH4的吸收量;秸秆还田和覆膜对N2O排放的影响结果尚未统一,但秸秆还田促进CO2排 放抑制CH4吸收,而覆膜促进CH4吸收抑制CO2排放。加强且更深入更全面的研究旱地农田生态系统温室气体排放应该作为今后重点研究领域,为全球气候变暖提供更为准确的理论基础。     

Effects of irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on the greenhouse gas emissions of a cropping system on a sandy soil in northeast Germany

Irrigation induces processes that may either decrease or increase greenhouse gas emissions from cropping systems. To estimate the net effect of irrigation on the greenhouse gas emissions, it is necessary to consider changes in the crop yields, the content of soil organic carbon and nitrous oxide emissions, as well as in emissions from the use and production of machinery and auxiliary materials. In this study the net greenhouse gas emissions of a cropping system on a sandy soil in northeast Germany were calculated based on a long-term field experiment coupled with two-year N₂O flux measurements on selected plots. The cropping system comprised a rotation of potato, winter wheat, winter oil seed rape, winter rye and cocksfoot each under three nitrogen (N) fertilization intensities with and without irrigation. Total greenhouse gas emissions ranged from 452 to 3503 kg CO_2-eq ha⁻¹ and 0.09 to 1.81 kg CO_2-eq kg⁻¹ yield. Application of an adequate amount of N fertilizer led to a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions compared to zero N fertilization whereas excessive N fertilization did not result in a further decrease. Under N fertilization there were no significant differences between irrigation and non-irrigation. Increases in greenhouse gas emissions from the operation, production and maintenance of irrigation equipment were mainly offset by increases in crop yield and soil organic carbon contents. Thus, on a sandy soil under climatic conditions of north-east Germany it is possible to produce higher yields under irrigation without an increase in the yield-related greenhouse gas emissions.     

安徽省农业源温室气体排放特征研究

安徽作为农业大省,农业源温室气体排放量巨大,笔者旨在对其农业源温室气体排放特征进行研究。研究方法为省级温室气体清单编制方法《省级温室气体清单编制指南（试行）》。结果表明：安徽省2005、2010、2012、2014年的农业源温室气体排放量折合二氧化碳当量(CO₂ e)分别为3916.97万、3246.90万、3182.70万、3313.20万t,CH₄、N₂O各占一半左右;其中又以种植业为主,约占70%左右。种植业的排放量相对稳定,4个年度的上下变化约45.11万t,仅占2012年种植业排放量的1.85%,这是由于安徽省的种植业从种类、规模到产量处于基本稳定状态;养殖业排放量变化则非常大,2005年排放量显著高于其他3个年份,这是由于安徽省农业生产模式由畜力向机械化转变、耕牛存栏量大幅度减少造成。随着奶牛、肉牛存栏量的增加,养殖业的排放量呈增长趋势。综上,安徽省的农业源温室气体排放量可能发生较大的增加,有效措施应该采取起来以抑制畜牧业排放量的增长趋势。     

Greenhouse Gas Control for Landfill

Landfill site is one of the most important sources of greenhouse gas emissions. The available information shows that greenhouse gas emissions from the landfill sites are 40% 50% of the total greenhouse gas emissions in America. The greenhouse gas output is computed in the text and the conclusion that the main components of yielding gas are food and paper is made. Some measures of cutting greenhouse gas yielding are suggested. At last it points out that some research about these measures should be made in the future in China.     

Do Mandatory U.S. State Renewable Portfolio Standards Increase Electricity Prices?

Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) are U.S. state mandates that utilities produce some of their electricity using renewable energy sources in an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. While advocates highlight the potential long‐term benefits of RPS, critics argue that RPS will increase electricity prices due to the higher costs of renewable energy generation. However, to date, there are no published empirical studies of the effect of RPS on electricity prices. Using state‐level panel data from 1990 to 2011 and the difference‐in‐differences method, I find that implementation increases electricity prices when the RPS policy first becomes binding.     

中国与东南亚三国（越、老、柬）普通野生稻遗传多样性的比较研究

利用24对SSR引物,对来自中国10个代表性居群和越南、老挝、柬埔寨的5个居群共计282份普通野生稻材料进行遗传多样性比较研究。结果表明,(1)24个微卫星位点共检测到等位基因289个,平均等位基因数(A)为12,有效等位基因数(Ae)为7;期望杂合度(He)平均为0.812,观察杂合度(Ho)平均为0.543,香农指数(I)平均为1.99;(2)4个国家中,中国普通野生稻的遗传多样性最丰富,老挝次之,越南和柬埔寨最低,香农指数(I)分别为1.92、1.69、1.47和1.45;(3)采用UPGMA方法对供试15个居群进行聚类分析。老挝和柬埔寨2个居群的亲缘关系最近,二者与越南居群有着较近的亲缘关系;(4)在中国所有参试居群中,广西武宣和贺州居群与东南亚3国亲缘关系最近。     

Conservation Agriculture practices reduce the global warming potential of rainfed low N input semi-arid agriculture

Conservation tillage and crop rotations improve soil quality. However, the impact of these practices on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and crop yields is not well defined, particularly in dry climates. A rainfed 2-year field-experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of three long-term (17–18 years) tillage systems (Conventional Tillage (CT), Minimum Tillage (MT) and No Tillage (NT)) and two cropping systems (rotational wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) preceded by fallow, and wheat in monoculture), on nitrous oxide (N₂O) and methane (CH₄) emissions, during two field campaigns. Soil mineral N, water-filled pore space, dissolved organic carbon (C) and grain yield were measured and yield-scaled N₂O emissions, N surplus and Global Warming Potentials (GWP) were calculated. No tillage only decreased cumulative N₂O losses (compared to MT/CT) during campaign 1 (the driest campaign with least fertilizer N input), while tillage did not affect CH₄ oxidation. The GWP demonstrated that the enhancement of C stocks under NT caused this tillage management to decrease overall CO₂ equivalent emissions. Monoculture increased N₂O fluxes during campaign 2 (normal year and conventional N input) and decreased CH₄ uptake, as opposed to rotational wheat. Conversely, wheat in monoculture tended to increase soil organic C stocks and therefore resulted in a lower GWP, but differences were not statistically significant. Grain yields were strongly influenced by climatic variability. The NT and CT treatments yielded most during the dry and the normal campaign, and the yield-scaled N₂O emissions followed the same tendency. Minimum tillage was not an adequate tillage management considering the GWP and the yield-scaled N₂O emissions (which were 39% lower in NT with respect to MT). Regarding the crop effect, wheat in rotation resulted in a 32% increase in grain yield and 31% mitigation of yield-scaled N₂O emissions. Low cumulative N₂O fluxes (<250 g N₂O-N ha⁻¹ campaign⁻¹) highlighted the relevance of soil organic C and CO₂ emissions from inputs and operations in rainfed semi-arid cropping systems. This study suggests that NT and crop rotation can be recommended as good agricultural practices in order to establish an optimal balance between GHGs fluxes, GWP, yield-scaled N₂O emissions and N surpluses.     

中国非CO2类温室气体减排潜力及其政策意涵

利用改进后的全球一般均衡环境模型（GTAP-E）及其6版非CO2类温室气体排放数据库,模拟了中国非CO2类温室气体减排潜力及其政策意涵。结果显示,现阶段,中国是世界上非CO2类温室气体排放最多的国家,2020年将会占到世界总排放的20%左右。其中,来自农业部门的非CO2类温室气体排放比重达到73%。未来10年,牛羊类、工业、服务行业的非CO2排放增速最快,且服务业的增速快于工业,并在2010年后超过工业排放。中国可以通过实施非CO2类温室气体减排政策,减轻二氧化碳减排的国际压力。虽然征收较高的碳税能够带来较高的非二氧化碳减排量,但是政策效率在高碳税和低碳税间差异不大。所以,在实施非二氧化碳减排碳税政策时,应该把碳税控制在一个较低的水平。     

气候变化对长江中下游稻区水稻产量的影响

选择长江中下游平原作为研究区域,按照政府间气候变化专业委员会(IPCC)排放情景特别报告(SRES)中的A2和B2方案,将基于区域气候模式PRECIS构建的气候变化情景文件与水稻生长模型ORYZA2000结合,模拟基准时段(1961—1990)气候(Baseline)和2021—2050时段A2、B2情景下的水稻产量,分析未来气候变化对长江中下游水稻产量的影响。构建两种影响评估方法,重点分析增温和大气CO2肥效作用对水稻产量的影响。结果表明,不考虑CO2肥效作用时,随着温度升高,水稻生育期缩短,产量下降。A2情景下水稻生育期平均缩短4.5d,产量减少15.2%;B2情景下平均缩短3.4d,产量减少15%。其中,减产达到20%以上的区域集中在安徽中南部、湖北东南部和湖南东部地区。当考虑CO2肥效作用后,A2情景下水稻平均产量减少5.1%,B2情景平均减少5.8%。减产区域缩小且幅度降低,江西和浙江部分地区则呈现一定程度增产,但增幅10%。大气CO2肥效作用一定程度上可提高水稻产量,使晚稻在增温的不利影响下仍呈现不同程度的增产态势,但对单季稻和早稻的增产贡献仍不足以抵消升温的负面影响。另外,大气CO2肥效作用可有利于提高未来气候变化下水稻的稳产性。     

白蚁堆释放温室气体在不同林型中的研究

为了研究土地利用变化后西双版纳地区原始林和橡胶林中白蚁堆释放温室气体的差异,以西双版纳地区的常见白蚁种土垅大白蚁(Macrotermes annandalei)和云南大白蚁(Macrotermes Holmgren)为例,研究其季节性的甲烷和二氧化碳的变化情况。结果表明,甲烷和二氧化碳的释放量在雨季是干季的3.5倍。西双版纳地区大面积的橡胶种植造成土地利用变化,从而造成温室效应。笔者从昆虫对于土地利用变化后对温室效应响应的角度,解释了土地利用变化后温室气体排放量的增加加速了全球变暖。研究中忽略了白蚁堆自身的材料释放的甲烷和二氧化碳的季节性变化。白蚁种群的季节性变化可能是导致白蚁堆甲烷和二氧化碳排放的季节性变化的因素。此结果需要结合白蚁堆本身的气体排放和去除其他影响白蚁堆气体排放的因素来进一步得到证明。土地利用变化后,同种白蚁甲烷的释放量在不同林型中的差异不显著,同种白蚁在不同林型中的二氧化碳释放量显著。土地利用变化后白蚁堆释放气体呈上升趋势。     

Effects of different manuring systems with and without biogas digestion on soil mineral nitrogen content and on gaseous nitrogen losses (ammonia,nitrous oxides)

Nitrogen (N) is the most susceptible nutrient to transformations affecting plant availability. These transformations include mineralization, immobilization, nitrification and denitrification, as well as leaching and ammonia volatilization. Use of stable wastes and other residues for biogas digestion may reduce N-losses. It is the purpose of this paper (i) to assess the effects of biogas digestion on soil mineral N (SMN) content in spring and autumn, (ii) to compare NH₃ volatilization following superficial application of different manures to a cereal crop, (iii) to compare greenhouse gas emissions of differently treated liquid slurry after its application via injection into closed slots, and (iv) to compare greenhouse gas emissions of differing manuring treatments within a whole organic stockless cropping system. The SMN content in autumn was not influenced by digestion of slurry. However, if cover crops and crop residues were harvested for digestion instead of leaving it on the field, a strong decrease of the SMN content was measured. Ammonia volatilization after application from digested slurry was higher than the volatilization from undigested slurry, likely due to the effect of the higher ammonia content and higher pH. Organic manuring by application of liquid effluents of the biogas digester, by incorporation of green manures with a narrow C/N ratio or by mulching aboveground biomass of a clover/grass-ley, resulted in a strong increase in N₂O emissions. The balance showed a 38% decrease in N₂O emissions for a whole arable organic stockless cropping system when crop residues and the clover/grass-ley were harvested, digested, and the effluents were reallocated within the same cropping system, in comparison to mulching and incorporation of the biomass as green manure. Injection of liquid cattle slurry resulted in a strong increase of N₂O emissions. The results provide some evidence that denitrification during nitrification was the driving force for the measured emission peaks. It was concluded, that biogas digestion of field residues resulted in a win-win situation, with additional energy yields, a lower nitrate leaching risk and lower nitrous oxide emissions. However, the propensity to ammonia volatilization was higher in digested manures.     

青岛市种植业主要投入要素碳排放及其强度分析

种植业碳排放是总碳足迹的重要组成部分,其来源及碳排放强度已成为减少温室气体排放的急需探讨的科学问题。本研究通过追溯种植业碳排放的来源,选定主要投入要素的碳排放系数,核算青岛市1995年至2012年种植业碳排放及其碳排放强度。结果表明：（1）1995-2012年种植业碳排放总体上是逐年减少的,整个研究阶段可分为两个时期,即1995-2007年碳排放保持稳定时期,与2008-2012年碳排放逐渐减少时期;（2）种植业主要投入要素碳排放所占比例显示,氮肥贡献率最大,达43.31%,而各投入要素碳排放的增长率显示,农膜变化率最大,达到85.51%;（3）碳排放强度表明产值和产量的提高,可以通过农田投入要素的有效组合和高效利用得到,并不会引起碳排放的增加。     

秸秆还田对中国农田土壤温室气体排放的影响

为了更好地了解和掌握秸秆还田对中国农田土壤温室气体排放的影响,笔者根据历年国内相关文献,就秸秆还田对中国农田土壤CO2、N2O和CH4等主要温室气体排放的影响进行较全面的综述。研究表明：秸秆还田能增加农田土壤CO2和CH4的排放通量,对N2O排放通量的影响表现为不确定性,分析了秸秆还田对农田土壤温室气体排放的影响因素,探讨了该领域存在的问题及未来的研究方向。秸秆还田对中国农田土壤温室气体排放有一定影响,对各温室气体影响程度和影响机理不同。     

Potential futures for road transportation CO2 emissions in the Asia Pacific

Abstract: Will future transportation carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions per capita in Asia Pacific economies follow historical trends of the now developed world? Evidence to date is inconclusive. A comparison at similar income levels (purchasing power parity) between recent emissions in Asia Pacific countries and historical emissions in developed countries suggests diverging patterns. (A) High‐income Asia economies (Japan, Hong Kong and Singapore –‘low emitters’) exhibit lower emissions than a selected sample of seven developed countries (United States, Australia, France, the Netherlands, Italy, Sweden and United Kingdom). (B) Another set of Asian countries (South Korea and Taiwan –‘medium emitters’) follow the emissions trends of European countries, which are lower than those of Australia and the United States. (C) A third Asian group (Malaysia and Thailand –‘high emitters’) exhibit emission trends comparable to that of Australia. We describe these trends, examine their causes and extrapolate likely futures for emissions in low‐income Asia Pacific economies (China, Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam). Although such predictions are speculative, the available evidence suggests that road CO₂ emissions for Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam will follow those of the third group (high emitters), while those for China may follow either Group B or Group C.     

Environmental performances of giant reed (Arundo donax L.) cultivated in fertile and marginal lands: A case study in the Mediterranean

Perennial rhizomatous grasses (PRGs) tend to have a high yield combined with a low environmental impact. Cultivation in marginal or poorly cultivated land is recommended in order not to compromise food security and to overcome land use controversies. However, the environmental impacts of using different types of soil are still unclear. We thus assessed the environmental impact of two giant reed (GR) systems cultivated in a fertile soil (FS) and in a marginal soil (MS) through a cradle-to-plant gate LCA. We analyzed energy balance, GHG emissions (including LUC, not including iLUC), and the main impacts on air, water and soil quality. In both systems the annualized soil carbon sequestration was more than twofold the total GHG emitted, equal to −6464 kg CO₂eq ha⁻¹ in FS and −5757 kg CO₂eq ha⁻¹ in MS. Overall, soil characteristics affected not only GR yield level, but also its environmental impact, which seems to be higher in the MS system both on a hectare and tonne basis. The production of GR biomass in marginal soil could thus lead to higher environmental impacts and a more extensive land requirement.     

秸秆全量还田下施用过氧化钙对南方双季稻产量和稻田温室气体排放的影响

为探明秸秆全量还田条件下施用过氧化钙（CaO₂）对南方双季水稻产量和稻田温室气体排放的影响,设置不施CaO₂（CK）和早稻旋耕前一次性施用CaO₂ 2个处理,采用静态暗箱–气相色谱法监测稻田温室气体排放,以明确秸秆全量还田下施用CaO₂对双季稻产量、稻田温室气体排放、综合温室效应（GWP）和温室气体排放强度（GHGI）的影响。结果表明,与CK相比,施用CaO₂显著增加了2018和2019年晚稻产量,增幅分别为3.44%和2.65%,但对早稻产量无显著影响。施用CaO₂显著降低了早稻季CH₄累积排放量、GWP和GHGI,降幅分别为14.73%、14.74%和15.09%,但是对N₂O累积排放量无显著影响。施用CaO₂对晚稻季CH₄和N₂O排放均无显著影响。与CK相比,施用CaO₂显著增加了2018和2019年的周年产量,增幅分别为1.93%和2.58%;但对CH₄和N₂O累积排放量、GWP及GHGI均无显著影响。因此,施用CaO₂有助于协同实现双季稻增产和稻田温室气体减排。     

秸秆全量还田下晚稻季翻耕对双季稻田温室气体排放和产量的影响

翻耕有利于秸秆还田,为了探究秸秆全量还田下不同耕作措施对双季稻产量和温室气化排放的影响,在晚稻季设置浅旋耕和翻耕2个处理,采用静态暗箱–气相色谱法连续监测当季晚稻和第2年早稻季稻田温室气体排放,以阐明秸秆全量还田下晚稻季翻耕对稻田甲烷（CH₄）和氧化亚氮（N₂O）排放及产量的影响。与浅旋耕处理相比,晚稻季翻耕显著降低了当季晚稻CH₄累积排放量（19.04%）、综合温室效应（19.19%）和温室气体排放强度（22.02%）,而对N₂O累积排放量无显著影响。晚稻季翻耕对第2年早稻季稻田温室气体排放无显著影响。可见,翻耕的减排效应只体现在当季。此外,浅旋耕和翻耕处理对当季晚稻和第2年早稻产量及其构成均无显著影响。短期来看,秸秆全量还田下晚稻季翻耕有利于协同实现双季稻稳产和稻田温室气体减排。     

Cultivar Specific Response of CO2 Fertilization on Two Tropical Mung Bean (Vigna radiata L.) Cultivars: ROS Generation,Antioxidant Status,Physiology, Growth,Yield and Seed Quality

Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (CO₂) is an important component of global climate change that will have a significant impact on the productivity of crop plants. In recent years, growth and yield of agricultural crop plants have been shown to increase with elevated CO₂ (EC) and have enticed considerable interest due to variation in the response of crop plants. In this study, comparative response of two mung bean cultivars (HUM‐2 and HUM‐6) was evaluated against EC at different growth stages under near‐natural conditions for two consecutive years. The plants were grown in ambient as well as EC (700 ppm) in specially designed open‐top chambers. Under elevated CO₂, marked down‐regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, membrane disruption and activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase were noticed in both the cultivars, but the extent of reduction was more in HUM‐6. As compared to ambient CO₂, EC increased total chlorophyll, photosynthetic rate, growth and yield parameters. Cultivar‐specific response was noticed as HUM‐6 showed higher increase in yield attributes than HUM‐2. Under CO₂ treatment, soluble protein and reducing sugars decreased while total soluble sugars and starch showed an opposite trend. Principal component analysis showed that both the cultivars responded more or less similarly to EC in their respective groupings of physiological and growth parameters, but the magnitude of ROS and antioxidative enzymes was variable. The experimental findings depict that both the cultivars of mung bean showed contrasting response against EC and paved the way for selecting the suitable cultivar having higher productivity in a future high‐CO₂ environment.     

The impact of climate changes on agriculture export trade in Pakistan: Evidence from time‐series analysis

Agriculture is one of the primary contributors to Pakistan's economy. However, over the last few decades, the atmospheric carbon dioxide emission has been amplified to a great extent in Pakistan. This amplification may cause climate change, global warming, and environmental mitigation in Pakistan. This paper empirically investigates the impact of CO₂ emissions on the agricultural export trade of Pakistan over the period 1975–2017. Evidence suggests that climate change could be a primary cause for the decline in Pakistan's agriculture export trade; no studies have been carried out for this specific issue, particularly over time. In this paper, the empirical analysis suggests the negative coefficient of agriculture export trade with CO₂ emissions subsequently decreases agriculture export trade, which leads to direct impact on Pakistan's economy. Both theoretical and empirical outcomes suggest that the adaptation of clean and green energies and technologies are the key to reduce pollution in Pakistan. Overall, the effects of carbon dioxide emissions on agriculture export trade are stronger in the long‐run dynamics, thus making the finding heterogeneous. Possible initiatives should be taken by the government of Pakistan to improve the agriculture sector and it should also introduce new policies to reduce the emissions of carbon dioxide.