Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Growth Suppression and Adverse Effects on Human Health Due to Air Pollution in the Upper Silesian Industrial District (USID), Southern Poland

Air pollution emissions were not continually monitored in the Upper Silesian Industrial District (USID), southern Poland, and data is only available for the last 20?years. Long-lasting and severe tree ring reductions in pines growing 5-20 km north of the USID area recorded particularly high levels of air pollution emissions in the period 1950-1990. Especially high amounts of reductions and many missing rings were found in the period 1964-1981. At the same time, pines growing 60?km west of the USID do not record deep ring reductions; this proves that the phenomenon is of a regional nature. Increases in infant mortality and lung, bronchial, and tracheal cancer morbidity rates among males were also recorded in the USID during periods of high air pollution. Infant mortality rates increased several years after the tree ring reductions. Therefore, it may be possible to use tree ring reductions as an early indicator of the occurrence of adverse effects on human health.     

The Influence of Industry on Scots Pine Stands in the South-eastern Part of the Silesia-Krakow Upland (Poland) on the Basis of Dendrochronological Analysis

Air pollution is considered a key stress factor affecting the annual ring widths of the trees, especially living in industrialized areas. The Silesia-Krakow Upland is one of the most polluted areas in Poland. Scots pine stands living there have been under influence of air pollution for a long period of time. Dendrochronological analysis in five separated transects, which were performed in this region, showed the abrupt and usually long term reductions observed in radial increments of sampled pines. The abrupt increase of reductions started in the beginning of 1960s. Most of them occurred in the years 1960–1990, after this period the number of Scots pine trees with reduced annual increments decreased considerably. The distribution of reductions in particular sites, especially of the Olkusz transects, indicate a distinct relationship between the amount of reductions and distance from local source of pollution. On the other hand the similarity in temporal distribution of reductions in all transects indicate that the studied area was probably also under influence of air pollution of a regional type.     

Difference in Needle Length - a New and Objective Indicator of Pollution Impact on Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris)

Needle fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) was studied south of the Severonikel nickel-copper smelter in the Kola Peninsula, Russia. We measured the difference in length of two needles of the same pair, and calculated FA as the ratio between this difference and the average length of the two needles of this pair. Needle FA did not depend on tree age, distance from the nearest neighbour or branch position within the crown, but increased with an increase in branching order. Needles originating in different years (1993-1997) demonstrated among-year variation in FA, which, however, was not related to annual fluctuations in SO₂ emission by the smelter. FA increased with decreasing distance from the smelter, and in the sites proximate to the smelter FA was double that found at the most distant (background) sites. The increase in FA was primarily due to an increased difference in the length of the two needles, and this difference may serve as a practicable indicator of pollution-induced stress in Scots pine.     

Effects of Alkalization of the Environment on the Anatomy of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) Needles

The effects of alkaline dust emitted from a cement plant for over 40 years on the anatomy of needles of Scots pine and lignin accumulation were analysed. Comparative analytical studies were conducted in stands similar as to their silvicultural indicators, climate and age in alkalised and in a relatively unpolluted area. Cross-section of needles were stained, photographed under microscope and measured. It was found that, due to the alkalisation of the environment, the total area of the needle cross-section, needle width and thickness and the area of mesophyll had decreased. At the same time, the vascular bundles and epidermis had increased. The greatest anatomical and biochemical differences between the needles from trees growing under optimum conditions and in the alkalised area were observed in the oldest needles. Visual analysis of cross-sections and biochemical analysis showed accumulation of lignin in older needles but more intensively in alkalised areas than in control.     

Nutrient balance in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest 1. Design of experiments

The main objectives of the project described in the present and four following papers are:

1. To study tree growth and nutrient status of forest soil as influenced by atmospheric depositions of S and N.
2. To study the influence of plant growth, litter decomposition and atmospheric depositions on soil acidity.
3. To study the influence of atmospheric deposition on the release of N₂O from soil.

One field plot experiment in a Scots pine forest and one lysimeter experiment were established in 1990 on weakly podzolized soils (Cambic arenosol). The experiment was established in a young Scots pine forest. N, Mg and P were applied in a factorial design. The experiment includes 12 treatments and three blocks. Soil was collected in a long-term field experiment with acid rain and filled into lysimeters (bucket type) by horizon. Under each horizon tension lysimeters were installed. The lysimeters were under a roof to avoid input of natural precipitation. S was applied as sulphuric acid diluted to pH levels of 5.5, 4.0, 3.5 and 3.0 and applied in a quantity of 1000 mm ”rain” yr^?1. Nitrogen (NH₄NO₃) was applied in three quantities: 0, 30 and 90 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1. Seedlings of Scots pine were planted in the lysimeters. Lysimeters with no trees were also established. The experiment includes four replicates.     

Fate of Nitrogen Compounds Deposited to Spruce (Picea Abies Karst.) and Pine (Pinus Silvestris L.) Forests Located in Different Air Pollution and Climatic Conditions

Measurements were made of NO₃-N and NH₄-N in bulk deposition, throughfall and soil solution on six permanent plots in pine and spruce stands located along a transect from the south to the north of Poland. Location differed both in the level of air pollution level and in climatic parameters. The total N load calculated from throughfall ranged from 12.5 to 34 kg^{-1a -1}. The load of NH₄-N exceeded the NO₃-N contribution. Differences in total N load were not reflected in foliar N concentration. Present forest health status of stands determined by defoliation class, and do not appear to be related to their N deposition.     

Nutrient balance in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest 4. Testing the nutrient cycling model (NuCM)

The Nutrient Cycling Model (NuCM), developed during the Integrated Forest Study in the USA, is one of the most detailed models simulating processes in the forest-soil-water system. In the present study NuCM simulations are compared to observed data from a lysimeter experiment. The use of NuCM requires input of a large number of parameters. Even though the lysimeter system is simple and relatively well known, some of the parameters necessary for model running are highly uncertain. To produce a better fit between simulated and observed data, adjustments of those highly uncertain parameters are necessary. The adjustments are discussed, and thereby also the question what might be regarded as good modelling-ethics. So is also the question; how to calibrate models with data which contain errors. In addition challenges related to the use of NuCM on this type of data are discussed. Model complexity (here number of parameters) is usually highly related to the amount of data available for the specific site the model was developed for. This study illustrates the uncertainty which appears when complex models are applied in studies with less extensive parameter collection     

Some Effects of N on Ectomycorrhizal Diversity of Scots Pine (Pinus Sylvestris L.) in Northeastern Germany

In the last three decades high industrial nitrogen (N) emissions have led to eutrophication of a Scots pine stand (Pinus sylvestris [L.]) near Schwedt characterized by a broad cover of Calamagrostis epigejos [L.] Roth (Poaceae). In comparison to the relatively unimpacted control site (low N site), this high N site showed a remarkably low mycorrhizal frequency (percentage of mycorrhizas on total amount of root tips) with seasonal lows down to 27 %. At the low N site the highest number of mycorrhizal root tips was found in the organic layer. At the high N site the amount of mycorrhizas per soil volume was similar in both organic and mineral soil layers, and also significantly lower when compared to the amount at the low N site. The high N site revealed only nine mycorrhizal morphotypes instead of eighteen found at each sampling date at the control site. 80 % of the coenosis at the high N site were represented by only four morphotypes resulting in a low diversity. The seasonal decrease in the mycorrhizal frequency, the small amount of mycorrhizas and the low diversity suggest that the high N deposition at this site has reduced the ability of the pine trees to withstand natural stresses such as prolonged drought or frost periods. This corresponds well with the 42 % reduction in tree stocking density at the high N site compared to the low N site.     

Effect of Alkaline Deposition on the Mites (Acari) associated with Young Scots Pine Forests in Poland

The effect of alkaline deposition produced by the ‘Kujawy’ cement and lime factory in Bielawy, Poland, on the mites in young Scots pine forests (plants class Vaccinio-Piceetea) was investigated. The concentration of calcium in tree bark and epiphytes, which provide a habitat for mites, as well as in soil was the lowest in the control plot, and increased in the direction of the factory. A high concentration of calcium correlated with an absence of lichens from tree bark, but a medium concentration was associated with a higher species number of lichens. The density of arboreal mites and the species number of Oribatida were the highest in the control plot and decreased when getting closer to the factory. In a highly contaminated plot, the density of soil mites was lower, while in a medium contaminated plot it was higher than in the control plot. In the contaminated plots, the species number of soil Oribatida and Gamasida was lower than in the control plot, except in a least contaminated plot where the number of gamasid species was higher than in the control plot. Some species were sensitive to calcium, others were sensitive to a high concentration but tolerated medium and small concentrations of this element, and yet others tolerated calcium. The arboreal mites reacted to alkaline deposition more distinctly than soil mites.     

The Impact of Simulated Acid Rain on Soil Leachate and Xylem Chemistry in a Jack Pine (Pinus Banksiana Lamb.) Stand in Northern Ontario,Canada

The impact of simulated acid rain on soil leachate and xylem chemistry in a young Jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) stand in the boreal forest of northern Ontario was evaluated. Permanent plots (5 × 2 m) were established in 1981 which were sprayed twice monthly with simulated acid rain, adjusted to pH 5.6, 4.0, 3.5, 3.0 or 2.5 with a 2:1 molar ratio of sulphuric (H2SO4) to nitric acid (HNO3) in addition to ambient rainfall. Sprays were applied between June and September for 5 yr. Unsprayed plots were also monitored. The pH of soil leachate collected between 1981–1985 was reduced significantly by the acid sprays and concentrations of sulphate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3-), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) increased in the A, B and C horizons. The soil recovered rapidly from the spray treatments, although residual effects were found in soil leachate samples collected during 1986–1987, particularly in the C horizon. Trees receiving spray acidified to pH 2.5 had higher concentrations of Ca, Mn, Cd and Rb in tree-rings formed between 1981–1985 compared to trees receiving spray acidified to pH 4.0 or to trees receiving ambient rainfall alone. Some of the changes in soil chemistry resulting from the application of acidic sprays are reflected in the chemistry of Jack pine tree rings and these chemical signals in tree rings may be used as indicators of soil acidification.     

Impact of Sewage Sludge Application on the Long-Term Nutrient Balance in Acid Soils of Scots Pine (Pinus Sylvestris,L.) Forests

The objective of the investigation was to determine the effectsof sewage sludge application on nutrient concentrations in soil and plant biomass fractions in Scots pine forests (Pinus sylvestris, L.), situated on sandy soils with low pH, in a south to north temperature gradient in Sweden. Twenty tons dw ha^-1 of sewage sludge was applied in 50 to 60 yr old pine forests at foursites from Brösarp in South Sweden to Jukkasjärvi in thenorthern parts of the country.Application of 20 ton dw ha^-1 of sewage sludge significantlyincreased the concentrations of extractable N, P, K, Ca, Mg and Na, in both the mor layer and in the upper 10 cm of the mineral soil. Three years after sludge application K concentrations were only significantly increased in the upper 10 cm of the mineral soil. After 11 yr the concentrations of P were still at the samelevel in the mor layer as after three years. The concentrations of Ca, Mg and Na had slightly decreased only in the mor layer. There was, in most cases, a statistically significant positive correlation between the amount of applied sludge and nutrientconcentrations in the soil, as well as in pine needles and in leaves of Vaccinium vitis-idaea.In all sites, Mg concentrations in the mor layer was positivelyand significantly correlated with Mg concentrations in current-year pine needles. Similarly, concentrations of Ca, Mg,and P in the mor layer were correlated with concentrations of these elements in current-year shorts of Vaccinium vitis-idaea.     

Short-Term Influence of Clinker Dust and Wood Ash on Macronutrients and Growth in Norway Spruce (Picea abies) and Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) Seedlings

The effects of clinker dust and wood ash on Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings were compared in buried pots. Clinker dust (0.5 kg m^?2) and wood ash (0.5 kg m^?2) were applied to the surface of a nutrient-poor mineral soil. In the second year, the increase in soil pH by the dust and ash were larger than in the first year. Both alkaline treatments caused a large increase in the needle potassium (K) concentration. An excess of soil K relative to magnesium (Mg) was observed by decreased Mg concentration in needles shortly after treatment. However, Mg concentration in needles stayed in the sufficiency range. Current results confirmed earlier findings that despite a positive effect on base cation nutrition, wood ash has a low potential for increasing the biomass of forest stands on mineral soils due to the N limitation in these soils.     

湿地松人工林地径与胸径树高模型的研究

应用样木资料,采用多方程分析对比法建立胸径与地径及树高与地径的相关数学模型,所建立的模型平均相对误差低于2％,预估效果理想,从而为通过地径的测定,应用二元立木材积表测定湿地松人工林被伐木材积提供了科学依据,在实践上有应用价值。     

降水酸度对马尾松根际环境中铝形态的影响

为了探明降水酸度对植物根际环境中铝形态的影响,以马尾松为例,采用根箱栽培、配制不同pH值的模拟酸雨以室外模拟酸雨喷淋法研究马尾松根际及非根际土壤中铝形态的特征及规律.研究结果表明:酸雨对土壤中铝化合物具有溶蚀作用,可促进土壤里活性铝离子(Al3+)溶出,并且酸雨pH值越低,活性铝离子累积溶出量越大,溶出的铝所形成的铝形态在马尾松根际土壤与非根际土壤以及根际不同土层之间存在一定差异,马尾松根际pH值和根系分泌物协同影响铝形态的动态变化.根际土壤中有机铝结合态含量增加.交换态铝含量则稍稍下降.     

Effects of ammonia,ammonium sulphate and sulphur dioxide on the frost sensitivity of scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.).

The deterioration of forest vitality has been at least partly attributed to air pollution. Especially NH₃, originating from intensive livestock farming and locally deposited in high concentrations, may contribute to forest decline in The Netherlands. Therefore, the effect of NH₃ and SO₂ fumigations on cold stress and water stress of Pinus svlvestris were examined. P. sylvestris trees (3 yr old) were exposed to ambient air supplemented with several NH₃ concentrations, with SO₂ or a combination of NH₃ and SO₂.Tops of branches were then exposed to various subzero temperatures and the effect of air pollution on frost damage was examined. Neither ambient air, NH₃ or SO₂ significantly influenced from sensitivity at –4 or –7°C. Following freezing treatments of –10°C, the influence of NH₃ and SO₂ became apparent. The effect of the combination of these pollutants is synergistic. Exposure to NH₃ alone followed by freezing temperatures lower than –10°C resulted in more severe frost damage in early autumn and spring than in the winter. It also increased the susceptibility of P. sylvestris to water stress. A greater loss of water was observed in NH₃-fumigated needles following drought stress, suggesting increased cuticular transpiration. Bud burst and subsequent shoot growth was also strongly reduced by NH₃ fumigations.     

The role of nitrogen in declining scots pine forests (Pinus sylvestris) in the lowland of East Germany

Over the last decade, N inputs in pine ecosystems on the lowland of the former GDR have clearly increased. Agriculture plays a special role as a NH_x emitter, because the whole lowland is covered with a network of large livestock farms. High N inputs cause an overnutrition of the pine stands with N, an accumulation of N in the soils, and as a consequence of the ensuing eutrophication, a drastic modification of the ground vegetation with a luxuriant growth of weeds and shrubs or of the vital herbaceous cover. The fine root quantity is reduced, also the mycorrhiza and the growth of pine. In many cases pine stands show a dramatical decrease of Mg nutrition. Finally, the limited range of silvicultural options is discussed, which are available to limit the progress of damage.     

Silvicultural use of wood ashes — Effects on the nutrient and heavy metal balance in a pine (Pinus sylvestris,L) forest soil

In a sustainable forestry recirculation of nutrients through the application of ashes from forest residues can be an essential way to guarantee healthy and vital forests. Wood ashes can also be regarded as a measure against soil acidification. Wood ashes were applied at various rates to the soil in a 35 years old pine (Pinus sylvestris, L) stand at Ringamåla in Blekinge, South Sweden. The experiments started in 1984. The different treatments gave a clear effect on soil chemistry with decreased acidity and aluminum ion concentrations. The base saturation increased in both mor and upper mineral soil layers. Generally no significant increases were found in soil concentrations of heavy metals, except for Cu which increased significantly in the mor layer. Also the extractable Mn concentration increased, in spite of the increased pH in the soil after application of ashes. In order to achieve a biological circulation of nutrients through ash application without polluting the environment, it is of ultimate importance that the wood chips used in power plants and other furnaces have a low concentration of heavy metals and other pollutants.     

Long-Term Changes of Particulate Emission in the Industrial Region of Upper Silesia (Poland) and their Effect on the Acidity of Rainwater

The article presents data from ten-year measurements, which provethat the positive effects in particulate emission were accompanied by some adverse effects in the form of acidified rainwater. A distinctive change of rainwater pH in the SilesiaRegion (Poland) was first recorded in the early 90's. While in 1989, pH of over 55% of the investigated rainwater samples wasabove 6, in 1997 the average yearly pH was 4.1 and the pH of20%of the investigated samples was in the range of 3.1–4.0. Seekingthe reason for an increased acidity of rainwater, pH values were compared with emission changes of particulate, SO₂ and NO₂ acrossthe studied area. Emission factors of Ca, Mg, Na and K were determined based on the data of particulate matter emission fromcement production processes, coal combustion processes and metallurgy. This allowed comparing the changes of pH rainwater with the area emissions of alkali elements. An analysis of thecorrelation between pH values and the changes of particulatematter and alkali elements emission as well as SO₂ and NO₂ emission in the area under study showed that particulate emission followed by SO₂ emission had the strongest impact onthe modification of rainwater pH, while the impact of NO₂ emission was less distinctive. Additionally, an analysis was made to investigate the relationbetween rainwater pH and the concentration of alkaline ions inrainwater samples. The highest value r = 0.96 was recorded forMg²⁺ ions, the lowest i.e. r = 0.54 for Ca²⁺ ions.This situation can be explained by the fact that calciumcompounds are the soluble substances among the investigatedmetals. Thus, despite the presence of calcium compounds inrainwater samples, a large amount of their portion does notinfluence rainwater pH.     

Effect of hop (Humulus lupulus L.) flavonoids on aromatase (estrogen synthase) activity

The aim of this work was to study the effect of the prenylflavonoids xanthohumol, isoxanthohumol, and 8-prenylnaringenin on the activity and expression of the enzyme aromatase (estrogen synthase). The effect of different kinds of beer containing these prenylflavonoids was also tested. Aromatase activity was determined by measuring the release of tritiated water during the conversion of [(3)H]androstenedione to estrone. Aromatase expression was determined by RT-PCR. This assay was carried out in choriocarcinoma-derived JAR cells. The tested prenylflavonoids were able to inhibit estrogen formation, and their IC(50) values were determined, although no effect on aromatase expression was found. Lager beer, alcohol-free beer, stout beer, and xanthohumol-rich stout beer (200 microL/mL) significantly decreased aromatase activity. In conclusion, prenylflavonoids are able to modulate aromatase activity, decreasing estrogen synthesis, with relevance for the prevention and treatment of estrogen-dependent disorders such as breast cancer.     

Nutrient balance in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest. 2. Effects of plant growth and N-deposition on soil solution and leachate chemistry in a lysimeter experiment

Three years of N application to a Cambic arenosol (Typic Udorthent) in two lysimeter series, one with and one without young saplings of Pinus sylvestris L. have produced significant changes in soil solution and leachate chemistry. An application of 30 kg N/ha^*yr^?1 significantly increased NO₃ ^? leaching from the soil. This N load was also sufficient to significantly increase the mobility of the phyto-toxic elements Al³⁺ and Mn²⁺, likewise to increase leaching of the important plant nutrients Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and K⁺. At a N load of 90 kg N/ha^*yr^?1 significant increase in NH₄ ⁺ leaching was observed, but total leaching of NH₄ ⁺ was still very low compared to NO₃ ^? leaching. No significant treatment effects were found for SO₄ ^2?, Fe²⁺ and Cl^? in the leachate. Trees grown in the lysimeters buffered the acidifying effect of N application and increased the leachate pH by 0.2 pH units compared to lysimeters without trees.