An approach to multi-criterion evaluation of irrigation system performance

Irrigation systems aim to meet multiple objectives and performance must therefore be assessed using quantifiable measures for each. It therefore becomes an extremely difficult task to capture the valuation of all of them simultaneously and to mentally process the trade-offs between them in order to arrive at an overall impression of system performance. There is a need for a methodology which provides a systematic approach to comparing and combining the components of overall performance.Multi-Attribute Utility Theory offers an attractive approach to assessing performance of irrigation systems in the form of a utility function which reflects the strength of preferences and trade-offs between individual performance criteria. The method is described and demonstrated on the basis of a case study of irrigation in Sudan.     

The rehabilitation of an irrigation system along the Yellow River

The People's Victory Irrigation System which diverts water from the Yellow River of China covers a total irrigable area of 59 000 ha. The system encountered some serious problems in the first decade of its operation — salinity and waterlogging of irrigated land, siltation of irrigation and drainage channels, as well as a low efficiency of water use. This paper describes a series of structural and functional measures which have been adopted in the past 24 years for the rehabilitation of the system, including: improvement of the existing drainage system and construction of new drainage system on agricultural land, conjunctive use of surface and groundwater supplies, a comprehensive programme to reduce the levels of siltation as well as the implementation of improved water management practices. A model for the optimal operation of the system by using system analysis theory as an aid in reducing the operation and maintenance (O & M) costs has been developed in recent years. The results are that the soil salinity has been controlled and the agricultural production has increased whilst the efficiency of water use has improved and the siltation levels reduced. Experience gained on this system has been successfully used in developing and managing other irrigation projects along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. The proposed procedure of solving the said optimal model has also embodied some benefits from reducing O & M costs in operation.     

Statistical methods for irrigation system water delivery performance evaluation

There are several different parameters that can be measured and used to describe the performance of water delivery service; flow rate, volume, duration, pressure, and frequency. The proper one(s) to consider depends on the project conditions and objectives. The overall performance of an irrigation water delivery system can be broken down into two components; the delivery schedule and operations. The performance of the delivery schedule can be evaluated by looking at the ratio of intended to required water (volume, rate, duration, etc.) and the performance of operations by the ratio of actual to intended water. The overall performance is expressed by the product of these two ratios; the actual divided by the required water. Statistical relations are provided to express equity, adequacy and reliability from measurement of these ratios.     

Performance assessment of irrigation water management of heterogeneous irrigation schemes: 1. A framework for evaluation

Studies of the performance assessment of irrigation schemes have gained momentum since the late 1980s due to the common perspective that the resources (land and water) in irrigation schemes are not being managed appropriately. In this paper irrigation water management is considered as one of the activities of the irrigation scheme. Three phases of irrigation water management namely planning, operation and evaluation are identified. A framework for the performance assessment of irrigation water management in heterogeneous irrigation schemes is proposed in this paper, based on earlier studies made in this direction. The paper presents two types of allocative measures (productivity and equity) and five types of scheduling measures (adequacy, reliability, flexibility, sustainability and efficiency), together with the methodologies for estimating these for the scheme as a whole during different phases of irrigation water management.     

Effects of alternative water distribution rules on irrigation system performance: a simulation analysis

Based on a simulation model reflecting physical and economic conditions typically found in rice irrigation systems in Asia, the irrigation performance implications of alternative water distribution rules for dry season irrigation are evaluated under varying degrees of water shortage. The rules examined reflect differing water distribution strategies designed either to maximize conveyance efficiency, economic efficiency, or equity; or to achieve a balance between efficiency and equity objectives. Irrigation performance is evaluated using several efficiency measures reflecting the physical, agronomic and economic productivity of water, and one measure of equity. Economic efficiency and equity among farmers within the portion of the irrigation system that is on in any given season are shown to be complementary, and not competing objectives. Economic efficiency and equity among all farmers within the command area of the irrigation system are largely complementary strategies at the lower levels of water shortage, but with increasing shortage, significant tradeoffs develop between these objectives. An operational rule for water distribution under a goal of maximizing economic efficiency is developed, and the data requirements for its implementation are shown to be modest. Under the model's assumed conditions of dry season rice production dependent solely on surface irrigation for water, the distribution strategy designed to maximize conveyance efficiency results in only modestly lower levels of economic efficiency and equity than could be achieved by the strategy designed to maximize economic efficiency.     

滚移式喷灌机压力对喷灌均匀性影响

为解决喷灌机械的喷灌均匀性差、移动不方便等问题,研制一种操控简单、适应性强的大型滚移式喷灌机,对其水量分布均匀系数和喷灌强度进行试验.试验采用单因素多重比较设计方法,选取距进水端距离分别为40,150,260 m处为测试处,喷灌压力分别为0.20,0.25,0.30,0.35,0.40 MPa,并运用Design-expert软件进行分析,研究各喷灌压力在各测试处对水量分布均匀系数和喷灌强度的影响.结果表明,各测试处的压力对水量分布均匀系数的影响均为显著性差异,且随喷灌压力上升,水量分布均匀系数升高.对喷灌强度的影响呈正相关性,但喷灌压力高于0.30 MPa时影响不显著.喷灌压力在0.40 MPa时,水量分布均匀系数平均可达88.75%,喷灌强度为12.3 mm/h,各处的水量分布均匀系数和喷灌强度能够保持均匀一致,并能够稳定作业,达到最优状态,完全满足大型滚移式喷灌机的性能要求.该项研究对于促进滚移式喷灌机推广和应用具有重要意义,为其深入研究提供了参考依据.     

太阳能喷灌系统供给能源与水力性能关系

为了解决太阳能喷灌系统应用中无法对喷头水力性能进行有效预测的问题,以光照强度为影响因素,太阳能喷灌系统泵出口流量、泵出口压力、喷洒射程、水量分布及系统灌溉均匀性系数为评价指标,通过在夏季典型天气25~36℃下的系统水力性能试验,寻找不同光照强度下系统喷洒水力性能的变化规律,获得系统最佳工作状态下所需光照强度.试验结果表明:随着光照强度的增大,系统流量及泵出口压力均增大,泵的流量和压力随光照强度的变化规律基本符合指数分布规律.当光照强度大于900.0 W/m²时,系统流量、泵出口压力、射程及水量分布基本保持不变.获得了平均光照强度与均匀性系数函数关系,当光照强度大于900.0 W/m²时,系统喷灌均匀系数大于88%.当光照强度为200.0~600.0 W/m²时,系统喷灌均匀系数为76%~82%.太阳能喷灌系统在光照强度大于200.0 W/m²时可正常工作.该研究为改善太阳能喷灌系统水力性能,促进太阳能喷灌系统在实际工程中的推广应用提供了参考.     

过滤后黄河水对滴灌系统的影响

为探明黄河水经孔径为0.05 mm(300目)过滤器过滤后进行滴灌的可能性,模拟大田滴灌研究了黄河水滴灌条件下4种滴灌带(Nf0.72,Nf1.60,Nf2.20,Dy1.38)不同位置流量变化规律,滴灌系统平均相对流量Q_r与流量变异系数C_v、系统均匀度C_u变化规律及相关关系.结果表明:黄河水对滴头的堵塞早期呈快速发育状态,不同类型引黄滴灌系统平均相对流量随灌水次数的增加呈平缓下降—快速下降—平缓下降的规律,均在相对流量75%附近快速下降;滴头流量变异系数在系统运行初期线性增大,之后平缓变化,且与系统平均相对流量具有很好的线性关系(p<0.001);当系统平均相对流量Q_r大于75%时,滴灌系统克里斯琴森均匀度系数C_u与Ln Q_r呈线性关系(R²=0.790 9),因此,引黄滴灌系统可通过系统平均相对流量Q_r来判断系统均匀度C_u,以方便及时快速了解系统堵塞状况,以便对其运行管理进行决策.     

一种新型的节水灌溉技术——渗灌

渗灌技术具有显著的节水、节能、省工、增产和提高品品质的特点，是发展我国节水型农业的重要技术措施之一，本文较详细地介绍了渗灌系统的田间规划，设计参数选择及生物堵塞的预防和处理办法，建议引进利用废旧轮胎回收的橡胶生产渗灌管的专利技术和关键生产设备，实现渗灌管的国产化。     

Performance assessment of small irrigation schemes along the Mauritanian banks of the Senegal River

Irrigation plays a fundamental role in world food provision but, to date, it has performed below expectations in Sub-Saharan Africa. The present study assesses and diagnoses the performance of 22 small and medium size community-managed irrigation schemes, mainly devoted to rice production, in different locations along the Mauritanian banks of the Lower Senegal River. The evaluations followed the Rapid Appraisal Process in which semi-structured interviews were held with representatives of the Cooperatives’ Boards in charge of each scheme to obtain information about the organisation of the cooperative, land tenure, irrigation system and organization, cropping pattern and soils. Additionally, for each irrigation scheme, the water-delivery service was characterized by making qualitative and comparative observations during field inspections; the pumping station's performance was diagnosed by a local specialist; the discharge at the head of the system was measured; daily irrigation time was recorded; and crop yields were determined by plot sampling. Then a set of performance indicators was computed. Water delivery capacity referred to irrigated areas was insufficient in a third of the schemes, and this insufficiency was exacerbated by poor maintenance. Irrigation intensity in habilitated areas was rather low being less than 0.66 in 50% of the schemes. The average productivity of land, irrigation water, and fuel (3.38 t ha⁻¹, 0.30 kg m⁻³ and 2.37 kg kWh⁻¹, respectively) were well below potential.     

Role of Groundwater in Irrigation Water Management in the Downstream Part of the Yellow River

Water scarcity in the Bojili irrigation District, which is located in the Shandong province in China, affects the management of the irrigation system and has led to the development of water storage functions inside the system. In particular, the irrigation and drainage scheme is used for short-term water storage whereas groundwater is used for long-term storage which is replenished during the monsoon season and drawn from when crop water requirements are not satisfied by surface irrigation.In this paper the storage functions are quantified. The role of groundwater, in relation to rainfall and irrigation depths, is analysed in detail. This analysis, which was carried out at the district and at sub-system scales, is based on data collected from fifty five observation wells between 1991 and 1996 at a 10-day time intervals. The sub-systems, called “divisions”, represent the areas for which irrigation-related information is available.Rainfall, groundwater levels and irrigation data are consistent. They demonstrate the inequity of water allocation between upstream and downstream water users. Accordingly strategies for water management differ between these users. These strategies only partially compensate the effects of scarcity demonstrated by decreasing cropping intensities from upstream to downstream parts of the District.     

Diagnosis of regional evaporation by remote sensing to support irrigation performance assessment

The success of water management in large irrigation schemes with composites of soil, crop, wetness and micro-meteorological conditions is difficult to quantify. Performance assessment indicators, being among others a function of evaporation, are useful tools to evaluate the actual functioning of an irrigation system. The inevitable spatial variability of evaporation in large irrigation schemes makes its determination with conventional point measurements almost impossible. A new remote sensing evaporation parameterization algorithm has been tested with high resolution Landsat Thematic Mapper data for the Eastern Nile Delta, Egypt. Although the implementation of such an algorithm requires assumptions to be made, the current case study shows that these assumptions do not hamper the estimation of actual and potential evaporation at regional scale. The actual evaporation has been used to express the uniformity of crop water use which is related to the equity of irrigation water distribution. The coefficient of variance in actual evaporation between 53 differenent irrigation districts is 10% on average. The relative evaporation was considered to determine whether the crop was adequately irrigated. The relative evaporation was more than 75% for 48 out of 53 irrigation districts. It is concluded, that improved information on actual crop growth conditions through remote sensing provides an essential insight into the planning of real-time and seasonal irrigation water deliveries.     

Assessing impacts of surge-flow irrigation on water saving and productivity of cotton

To improve water saving and conservation in irrigated agriculture, a range of field evaluation experiments was carried out with various furrow irrigation treatments in cotton fields to estimate the possibilities of improving furrow irrigation performances under conditions of Central Fergana Valley, Uzbekistan. The research consisted in comparing surge and continuous-flow in long furrows and adopting alternate-furrow irrigation. The best results were achieved with surge-flow irrigation applied to alternate furrows. Field data allowed the calibration of a surface irrigation model that was used to identify alternative management issues. Results identified the need to better adjust inflow rates to soil infiltration conditions, cut-off times to the soil water deficits and improving irrigation scheduling. The best irrigation water productivity (0.61 kg m⁻³) was achieved with surge-flow on alternate furrows, which reduced irrigation water use by 44% (390 mm) and led to high application efficiency, near 85%. Results demonstrated the possibility for applying deficit irrigation in this region.     

轻小型喷灌机组的运行速率与压力水头损失

为研究轻小型喷灌机组低压喷灌条件下运行速率的合理取值以及工作压力与喷灌机组压力水头损失的关系,以轻小型喷灌机组为研究对象,经过室内喷灌试验,研究了一定工作压力和流量条件下机组的运行速率、灌水定额之间的关系,并对机组的局部水头损失和沿程水头损失进行了分析.结果表明:灌水定额与轻小型喷灌机组的运行速率、工作压力有一定的关系,通过确定灌水定额,能够调制出相应的运行速率.轻小型喷灌机组卷盘车处入口压力增大,喷水车单喷头处的压力也随之增大,但是入口压力增大到一定程度后,单喷头压力的提高幅度减小,因此在机组正常工作范围内,可以通过适当降低机组的入口压力,以减少机组的压力水头损失,节省能耗,降低机组的运行成本.轻小型喷灌机组在中国有广泛的发展前景,该项研究对于中国轻小型喷灌机组的性能改良具有重要意义,为轻小型喷灌机组的发展提供参考依据.     

平移式喷灌机行走速度及喷灌均匀度试验研究

为研究低压喷灌下喷灌机行走速度合理取值以及喷灌均匀度对土壤含水率均匀度的影响,以自行研制的轻小型平移式喷灌机为研究对象,通过室内单喷头试验和田间喷灌试验,探究了特定灌水定额下喷灌机的工作压力与行走速度关系,并对其水量分布、喷灌均匀度以及土壤含水率均匀度随时间变化进行了分析.结果表明：通过确定灌水定额能够计算出平移式喷灌机的行走速度和工作压力：当灌水定额分别为10,15,20 mm时,40~120 kPa喷灌压力下喷灌机行走速度最小为17.27 m/h,最大为58.65 m/h;增大喷灌压力能小范围提高均匀度,40 kPa工作压力均匀度为0.696,60~120 kPa喷灌压力下均匀度变化范围为0.731~0.788,喷灌水在土壤中的二次分布均匀度明显高于地表喷灌均匀度,40 kPa喷灌压力下喷后6 h土壤含水率均匀度达到0.906,24 h后达到0.953,可相应降低喷灌均匀度设计值以降低运行成本,节约能耗.     

畦灌灌水技术参数的多目标模糊优化模型

为了提高畦田灌水质量和高效用水,采用田间水利用系数的数值模拟模型求解田间水利用系数和灌水均匀度,以两者为目标建立了畦灌灌水技术参数的多目标优化数学模型.分析了该优化问题的模糊性,提出了模型的模糊解法.利用所建立的多目标模糊优化模型和计算方法,对试验畦田进行了灌水技术参数的优化计算.根据优化计算所确定的灌水技术参数,即单宽流量和灌水时间,进行田间灌水试验,测定和计算了田间水利用系数和灌水均匀度,并与优化计算的目标值进行了比较.结果表明,实测值与计算目标值有较好的一致性.因此,所提出的灌水技术参数优化模型及解法,可同时满足节水与保证灌水质量的要求.     

Effect of irrigation uniformity on the profitability of crops

There are numerous models capable of simulating crop behavior under different water stress conditions. However, none of them takes into account the effect of irrigation water uniformity on yield. The model developed simulates the uniformity effect on yield and the repercussion on gross margin (GM). The application of the model to a maize crop in Albacete (Spain) indicates that for the same irrigation depth, an increase in uniformity of water in the soil (CU) corresponds to a 4% increase in yield for the common irrigation strategy in the area, and a 6.8% increase in yield for the optimal irrigation schedule established by the model. Values of percentage of adequately irrigated area (a) between 50 and 80% appear to be adequate for values of CU > 80%. This effect has special relevance on the GM mainly when designing the irrigation strategy of areas with limited water resources. This leads to improvement of CU from 75 to 95% for the common irrigation depth applied to maize and may increase GM up to 27%. For small irrigation depths, the effect of CU on GM is reduced. The maximum GM is reached at ET_a/ET_m < 1 and a <100%. The paper also describes a methodology for determining the most suitable irrigation schedule under regulated deficit irrigation conditions.     

Towards Improved Performance of Irrigation Tanks in Semi-Arid Regions of India: Modernization Opportunities and Challenges

In the semi-arid regions of India there are around 120,000small-scale tanks, irrigating about 4.12 million ha. In manyareas, the tank storage structure is the only water source tostore rainwater and help farmers through crop growing periodand provide stability to agricultural production. Theunderdevelopment, stagnation and even decline of paddyagriculture during recent years in this region are usuallyattributed to the constraints in tank water supply. Whateverthe shortcoming at their creation, existing irrigation tanksremain an asset to the sustainability of irrigatedagriculture. The objective of this paper is to bring out thechallenges and opportunities towards improved performance ofirrigation tanks in semi-arid regions of India throughintegrated modernization. The performance of various types ofsmall scale irrigation tanks are evaluated for their role incrop production development strategies. The short-termstrategies include on farm development works throughmodernization of existing irrigation facilities/structures andconjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources. Thelong term challenges consist of establishing water gridsconnecting these modernized tanks in a chain to mitigatedrought and flood at local level as well as encouraging thefarmer's participation in planning and management of theseirrigation facilities for sustaining agriculture. It was foundthat evolving comprehensive but integrated modernizationstrategies for the tanks is a complex task, due to the dynamicinteractions of water.     

Farmer's perspective on irrigation performance

Of the many client groups with interests in irrigation system performance, farmers are probably the least often considered. This paper attempts to explore the meaning of irrigation performance from their perspective, highlighting at the outset basic difference between this perspective and that of system managers. It then reviews several important concepts underlying a consideration of performance in irrigation systems. The paper then proposes and discusses a set of twelve measures of irrigation service judged to be of interest to farmers. These are adequacy, timeliness, equity, tractability, convenience, predictability, temperature, sediment content, salt content, nutrient content, toxics, and pathogens.     

变频调速分级恒压灌溉自动控制系统及应用

为解决机电泵利用工频电源(50 Hz)作恒速运转条件下,灌溉面积或地形高差变化较大的管道式喷微灌系统灌水均匀度不能满足灌溉要求的问题,提出了一种变频调速分级恒压灌溉自动控制系统,该系统将变频技术和自动化技术相结合,具有变频调速和全自动闭环控制功能的机电一体化智能设备,可同时对1台或多台三相380 V,50 Hz水泵电动机进行自动控制.该系统设计了多段压力设置转换电路,可根据预先设定的压力控制值自动进行压力等级切换,并对管网的电磁阀开启、关闭进行控制,实现分级恒压自动供水灌溉.通过工程实例分析表明,采用水泵工频控制时喷灌系统水头最大差值为12.89 m,采用变频分级恒压控制时喷灌系统水头最大差值为3.38 m,满足设计压力变幅不大于4.00 m的要求.同时该系统具有节水、节能、自动化程度高、运行管理方便以及保证管网和水泵安全运行等功能,能够根据灌溉分区进行分级恒压自动供水灌溉,满足灌水均匀度要求.