THE FUTURE OF U.S. SEAFOOD SUPPLY

The United States today imports most of the seafood it consumes. Half of these imports are from aquaculture. Domestic wild capture production is limited and U.S. aquaculture production has declined in recent years. Policy, socioeconomic, and regulatory obstacles stand in the way of expanded U.S. aquaculture production. In this article, we examine the implications of two future paths for seafood supply: an increasing reliance on imports, and a shift toward increased domestic aquaculture production. We examine global trends, likely future developments in U.S. seafood demand and supply, and implications of the path of U.S. aquaculture development for U.S. seafood supply and prices, employment, ecological footprint, and seafood supply security and safety. We conclude with recommendations for a path forward that serves the interests of the nation and the global community in the search for economically sound and sustainable ways to feed a growing population.     

COMPETITIVENESS OF U.S. AQUACULTURE WITHIN THE CURRENT U.S. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

Increased attention has been paid in recent years to both positive and negative effects of increasing numbers of regulations on businesses in the United States. The decline in U.S. aquaculture has been attributed in part to increasing volumes of imports and high feed prices. However, there is increasing concern that the U.S. regulatory environment, as compared to that of international competitors, may also have contributed to this decline. More than 1,300 laws apply to U.S. aquaculture and even though the majority has been issued by individual states and apply only to specific types of aquaculture businesses in that state, the cumulative regulatory burden has increased over time. Major compliance categories include: 1) environmental management; 2) food safety; 3) legal and labor standards; 4) interstate transport of aquatic products; 5) fish health; and 6) culture of commercially harvested species. A substantial portion of the regulatory burden is the managerial and labor time spent on compliance in addition to the direct cost increases. The streamlined one-stop process adopted in Norway appears to have allowed growth of aquaculture within a comprehensive regulatory framework, yet the lack of such a streamlined approach in the United States appears to have contributed to the decline of existing industries and to serve as a deterrent to investment in newly emerging technologies. Favorable regulatory environments in countries that export to the U.S. contrast sharply with the increasingly inefficient, cumbersome and/or restrictive U.S. environment. Such disparities have created competitive disadvantages for U.S. producers. Attention is needed by policy makers to search for streamlining mechanisms and by the scientific community to address the growing competitive disadvantage to U.S. aquaculture to respond to increased global demand for farmed seafood.     

我国淡水养殖保险发展制约因素及对策分析

淡水养殖业是我国大农业的重要组成部分,目前我国淡水养殖保险普及范围小、产品覆盖种类少、保障能力有限且稳定性差,总体上仍处于初级发展阶段。本文首先从我国淡水养殖业的发展现状出发,总结了我国淡水养殖保险发展中面临的制约因素,包括行业自身风险高、防灾防损能力低、保险公司承保积极性不足等,最后基于制约因素分析,从行业自身的风险抵抗能力、健全社会化服务体系、强化政府政策指引、保险公司的产品开发、养殖户正确养殖理念的形成等方面,提出了相应的对策建议。     

Federal and state support for aquaculture development in the United States

Abstract

Despite a generally uniform federal support infrastructure, aquaculture development in individual states differs widely in the United States. Even among eastern coastal states with shared natural attributes, introduction of reared species and rates of development may differ noticeably. Aquaculture development reflects existing natural, human and physical capital resources and may be influenced by statutes, regulations and public support. One dimension of the existing and emerging industry support involves financial and development programs. This paper presents data on the structure and utilization of public financing programs and nonprofit economic development support by commercial marine and inland aquaculture enterprises in the United States and selected subdivisions. The research illustrates the scope and magnitude of public sector financial support in eight states; however, the costs and benefits of the public investment need to be carefully examined.     

Case study on eye abnormalities in tank-reared hybrid walleyes (Sander vitreus×S. canadensis)

Hybrid walleye is important for recreational fisheries and is a potential aquaculture species in the north central region of the United States. Stress related to intensive culture conditions has been documented to cause eye lesions in fish. Finfish eyes do not have eyelids, hence the cornea is permanently exposed to mechanical damage and toxic substances. We documented various disorders of the eye in juvenile hybrid walleyes reared in a flow‐through tank system. Abnormalities include exophthalmia, enophthalmia, unilateral loss of globe and bilateral loss of globe. These lesions negatively affected body weight, specific growth rate and condition factor of hybrid walleyes reared in tanks.     

U.S. seafood consumption

U.S. seafood consumption has changed dramatically in recent decades and has become increasingly dominated by the consumption of a limited number of species that are primarily imported and predominantly sourced from aquaculture. In getting to this point, the United States has been, and still is, at the forefront of some of the most important trends in global seafood markets. Hence, discussing the factors influencing U.S. seafood consumption patterns is an interesting and informative endeavor and will most likely also have strong predictive power for the continued development of seafood markets in the United States. In this article, we will discuss the transitions in the U.S. seafood market, primarily focusing on the period from 1990 to the present, highlighting the main factors that facilitated this development. This article provides an overview of U.S. landings, aquaculture production, exports, and imports and also explores contributing trends in global export and import markets. This will be followed by a discussion of U.S. per capita consumption patterns and an examination of the consolidation of species consumed over time. Finally, implications for future trends in seafood consumption and production are discussed.     

Controlling preharvest maturity in farmed Arctic char: A review from the Canadian perspective

Arctic char, Salvelinus alpinus L. is a promising candidate for aquaculture expansion in Northern Europe, Canada, and the United States because of its excellent growth at low temperature, tolerance to high rearing density, high fillet yield, and superior flesh texture and flavor. To support this industry, several breeding programs in these regions currently focus on selection for growth and delayed maturation. While the growth potential of existing strains has been improved, preharvest sexual maturation remains a problem in this industry. This article describes current knowledge on the control of preharvest maturation in Arctic char at the hatchery level through the production of single‐sex and triploid populations and during the grow‐out phase through the manipulation of photoperiod and feed intake. Research perspectives on the subject are also suggested in order to complement the efforts of ongoing breeding programs.     

Preliminary Pond Production of the Red Claw Crayfish,Cherax Quadricarinatus,in the Central United States

The Australian red claw crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus, has recently attracted attention as a potential candidate for aquaculture in the United States. This paper reports the first experimental yield trials of the red claw crayfish in the central United States. Two earthen ponds (0.30 and 0.31 ha) were stocked with juvenile red claw crayfish at either 3.5 or 7.0 crayfish/m². Crayfish were fed a diet of pelletized shrimp ration supplemented with corn silage. When stocked at 3.5/m₂, red claw crayfish grew from an average weight of 3.0 g to 27.0 g in 97 days; average survival was 79.6%; net yield was 653 kg/ha; and feed conversion was 1.4. When stocked at 7.0/m² red claw crayfish grew from an average weight of 4.1 g to 19.7 g in 99 days; average survival was 70.0%; net yield was 678.9 kg/ha; and feed conversion was 1.8. During the yield trial, temperatures were optimal for growth (25 to 33°C) 60% of the time. These findings are sufficiently encouraging to warrant further trials in locations with a longer growing season, in order to evaluate more fully the potential of the red claw crayfish as a candidate for aquaculture in the United States.     

MODELING THE IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE IN VIETNAM 1

This study was motivated by the need to estimate the quantitative impacts of current regulatory constraints on the economic performance of reservoir aquaculture in Vietnam. Using survey data and a specially adapted bioeconomic model, we show that performance of reservoir aquaculture varies widely. The three performance criteria were fish yields, net production revenue and income generated for the local population. Results suggest that current policies regarding extension effort on fingerling survival rates and on feeding strategies, as well as regulations involving taxation of cooperatives and authorities collecting leasing fees, do constrain the economic potential of reservoir aquaculture. The forgone production revenues limit the potential for aquaculture to alleviate local poverty. This study is a first step in identifying those government regulations that have a critical role in the development of reservoir aquaculture in Vietnam.     

CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF LOCALLY GROWN FOOD: THE CASE OF INDIANA AQUACULTURE PRODUCTS

Many Indiana small- and medium-sized farm and ranch operators are looking at aquaculture to diversify their operations, but the underlying thought for most of these potential aquaculturists is the feasibility of raising fish, and whether consumers will be interested in Indiana aquaculture products. The study used an ordered probit model to examine Indiana consumers' interests in Indiana farm-raised aquaculture products. The model did not predict any non-interest but predicted 18% probability of consumers that are somewhat interested, 58% for consumers that are interested and 24% for consumers that are strongly interested. Factors that positively affected interest in Indiana aquaculture products were previous purchase of farm-raised aquaculture products, frequent at-home seafood consumption—once per week, and being at least 36 years of age. While consumers in the household income $20,000–$59,999 group showed interest, households with higher incomes were less interested. Prices that consumers are willing to pay for Indiana seafood products are within the range of market seafood prices in Indiana. However, consumers will not be interested in Indiana aquaculture products as premiums for the products increase.     

A Small-Scale Recirculating Aquaculture System for Global Aquaculture Education and Industry Development

While global aquaculture is expanding rapidly, the United States (U.S.) and East Africa (EA) Great Lakes region have experienced slower growth. Aquaculture education is integral to overcoming existing limitations and accelerating production in these regions and worldwide. Toward this goal, an open access educational recirculating aquaculture system (ERAS) was designed to meet the differential objectives of aquaculture education in the U.S. and EA and trialed within educational institutions. Key ERAS design considerations were cost, operation, size, component availability, and construction. A secondary aspect of ERAS design was flexibility and application to different learning objectives. Over the trial period, two potential educational uses emerged: (1) to build student awareness of aquaculture and its importance in the food system, and (2) to teach practical aquaculture skills necessary for aquaculture careers. Construction and assembly guides for the educational ERAS will be offered open source through the University of Massachusetts Amherst aquaculture extension website.     

我国水产养殖保险发展的几点建议

水产养殖业是风险较大的产业,水产养殖者在水产养殖的过程中,难免遭受自然灾害和意外事故,保险机构如能对水产养殖者所遭受的经济损失及时提供经济保障,必将为水产养殖业的稳定发展起到重要作用。本文对中国水产养殖保险发展现状、必要性及存在的问题等进行了阐述,并提出一些建议。     

从农业保险看海水养殖保险费率补贴问题

海水养殖保险作为农业保险的重要组成部分,可以有效分散养殖风险并在灾后进行快速损失补偿,对于促进海水养殖业持续健康发展具有重要意义.目前我国部分沿海地区已进行海水养殖保险试点.关于海水养殖保险的理论研究大部分集中在保险经营模式的探讨上,对于保险费率厘定及政府费率补贴问题研究较少,仍处于初步探索阶段.鉴于农业保险费率研究的日益成熟,本文参考农业保险探讨海水养殖保险费率补贴的问题.首先从经济学和保险风险可保性两个方面阐明了海水养殖保险费率补贴的原理,参考农业保险费率补贴的经验,给出了海水养殖保险保费补贴应考虑的各项因素.继而就如何进行保险费率补贴提出如下建议：建立分层政府补贴机制;根据区域特点和保险险种进行差异化补贴;根据养殖户多样性要求设置不同的保障水平;实地考察养殖户的支付意愿进而测算最优补贴额度.最后就目前海水养殖保险开展中可能存在的问题进行了讨论.     

A Scale Measure of State Regulatory Climate Toward Finfish Aquaculture

States are responsible for implementing many key environmental laws enacted during the last 30 years. State level variations in legal, regulatory, and development programs targeted toward the aquaculture industry can affect aquaculture firm decision making, including site location and species selection decisions. This research focused on development and testing of a summated scale measure of state regulatory climate toward finfish aquaculture. Data for the analysis were generated from a national survey of state level finfish aquaculture programs. The final aquaculture regulatory climate scale (ARCScale) ranges from 0–18, with the numerical value of the scale increasing with increases in regulatory stringency. Scale values were computed for each state plus Guam for five categories of finfish: baitfish, ornamentals, commercial foodfish, freshwater gamefish, and marine gamefish. The scale allows direct comparison between states, enabling aquaculture producers to make more informed location, species selection, and business decisions. The scale also provides a means for evaluating changes in state institutional characteristics and regulatory climate over time.     

Distribution of Ground Water Suitable for Use in Saline-Water Aquaculture in Central and West-Central Alabama

Production of shrimp in inland ponds supplied by water from saline aquifers is a potential new aquaculture industry in Alabama. Examination of 2,527 well records of the Geological Survey of Alabama and the United States Geological Survey and samples from 35 wells revealed 238 wells with chloride concentration of 125 mg/L chloride or more in 11 counties of central and west-central Alabama. Chloride concentrations varied from 136 mg/L to 94,000 mg/L. The highest chloride concentrations were from wells in Washington, Choctaw, and Clarke Counties. However, 83% of the saline-water wells in Dallas, Hale, Greene, Marengo, Wilcox, and Sumter Counties were supplied by aquifers of the Eutaw, Gordo, McShan, and undifferentiated Eutaw-McShan formations. Water from these wells had an average and standard deviation of 1,238 ± 615 mg/L chloride. Based on the frequency of saline-water wells, the number of wells with chloride concentrations above 700 mg/L (about 2 ppt salinity), and well depths, it was concluded that Hale, Greene, Marengo, and Sumter Counties have the greatest potential for saline-water aquaculture. Contour maps for chloride concentrations and depths of wells in these four counties were prepared to better delineate this potential water source for aquaculture. There were, however, areas in Lowndes, Tuscaloosa, and Wilcox Counties with saline ground water suitable for inland aquaculture.     

COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF THE U.S. FARM-RAISED CATFISH INDUSTRY: A CROSS-REGIONAL ANALYSIS

Policy analysis matrices are developed and used to derive domestic resource cost coefficients for different catfish farm production regions in the United States. The results show that U.S. catfish producers were losing their comparative advantage positions during the study period considered. An import tariff improves the industry's comparative advantage position, but may not increase its market profitability. Higher efficiency in feed usage, and higher market prices paid to producers through promotional efforts are essential to the U.S. catfish industry.     

Assessing price integration and trade policy in the U.S. catfish market

In 2003, the United States adopted anti-dumping tariffs for Vietnamese catfish products entering the country. This study examines how these tariffs have impacted the price relationship between domestically produced and imported catfish products. Cointegration tests confirm a long-run price relationship between domestic and imported catfish, which has persisted despite the anti-dumping tariffs. However, imports are composed of catfish from Vietnam and other countries, with only the former subjected to tariffs. Results from vector error correction models suggest that Vietnamese catfish prices do not significantly influence domestic prices. Conversely, the price of catfish from countries other than Vietnam continues to impact prices received by domestic catfish farmers and processors. The domestic catfish industry is still affected by lower-priced imports from countries other than Vietnam, although some of these may be transshipments that truly originate in Vietnam. This research methodology could be adapted to investigate trade and price interactions among other aquacultured species, which will become increasingly important as global aquaculture expands.     

海水养殖台风指数互联网保险研究分析

海水养殖台风指数保险具备操作简单、快速查勘定损的优势,为水产养殖互联网保险的开发和运用打下了基础。笔者主要对海水养殖台风指数互联网保险中互联网的支持、投保基数大、验标方便、标准化理赔等方面进行可行性分析,最后提出从开发和完善海水指数互联保险、充分发挥财政补贴作用、加大渔业保险机构的宣传力度等方面完善海水台风指数互联网保险的建议。     

Viability of a Freshwater Mussel (Elliptio complanata) as a Biomechanical Filter for Aquaculture Ponds I: Clearance Rate of Chlorophyll-α

The production and livelihood of aquaculture facilities depend on increased growth of species being harvested. Only 15%-25% of nitrogen and phosphorus are retained in farmed fish even when all feed is consumed. In both marine and freshwater aquaculture systems, bivalves have proven to be an inexpensive method for controlling algal growth through suspension feeding. With 25% of the native U.S. freshwater mussel species under federal protection, their use in aquaculture ponds could lead to further propagation and restoration of natural populations. Elliptio complanata is an important species in Delaware rivers and connected estuaries; a recent two-year study by the United States Geological Survey found that 98% of mussels found in the Delaware River were Elliptio complanata. The objective of this study was to calculate the clearance rate of E. complanata in a laboratory study. This would help us determine if mussels can serve as an addition to chemical and mechanical filtration regiments and thrive in an aquaculture setting. Using feeding chambers we investigated the effect of E. complanata on algae grown from an aquaculture pond and on a cultured alga over a four-hour period. Temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH were monitored, and samples were than analyzed for total chlorophyll-α. The average of both the single cell using Chlorella vulgaris and mixed assemblage treatments chlorophyll-α clearance rate was 0.187 liters per hour per mussel. Prior to this experiment, these mussels were held for a period for two months in the holding system in the laboratory. The resulting low clearance rate as compared to the previous studies in the field is possibly due to the stress from holding these mussels. However, our study demonstrated that mussels have the potential to be used in an aquaculture setting and/or recreational ponds to help reduce algae populations that can occur as a result of eutrophication.     

ANTICIPATING THE GROWTH OF AN OCEAN AQUACULTURE INDUSTRY

In assessing the future expansion of aquaculture in coastal-ocean environments, most studies focus only on the constraint posed by the local environmental assimilative capacity. In open-ocean environments, however, the assimilative capacity is difficult to gauge. We develop an alternative economic approach for projecting the growth of the open-ocean aquaculture industry. We evaluate equilibria in the market for seafood, where the product may be supplied either by a wild-harvest fishery or open-ocean aquaculture or both. In our framework, the net demand for farmed fish determines the size of the aquaculture industry and, in turn, the levels of pollution discharges. We illustrate our approach with a case study of a groundfish fishery and the proposed open-ocean aquaculture of Atlantic cod in New England. We find that, for a range of competitive production costs for aquaculture, the optimal industry structure would comprise both a wild-harvest fishery and aquaculture.