Price interactions between salmon and wild caught fish species on the Spanish market

Abstract

The introduction and rapid expansion of farmed salmon production in the mid 1980s has transformed the international market for salmon. Spain is one of the most important markets for fish within Europe and the world, and has seen a substantial increase in its demand for salmon. As in other European countries, this has raised concerns that the increased supply of salmon to Spain may have detrimental effects on the market prices of traditional (wild‐caught) species.

In this paper, the extent to which salmon competes with the main traditional fish species in the Spanish market is examined using market delineation methodologies. In particular, the potential interactions between species is examined in a multivariate cointegration framework. The results suggest that salmon is at best only a weak substitute for tuna, hake and whiting, but no significant interaction could be found.     

A Review of Factors Influencing Maturation of Atlantic Salmon,Salmo salar,with Focus on Water Recirculation Aquaculture System Environments

Sexual maturation of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, is a complex process, with many variables having the capacity to influence the timing and prevalence of maturation and acting as promoters and/or inhibitors of sexual development. Precocious maturation has the capacity to seriously impact production in commercial aquaculture settings, and in response there has been a significant amount of research devoted to understanding this issue in order to develop remedial strategies. Very little research has been conducted specifically examining salmon maturation in land‐based, closed containment water recirculation aquaculture systems, which have recently received attention as an alternative technology for the sustainable production of market‐size Atlantic salmon. Unfortunately, the nascent closed containment salmon industry has thus far experienced high levels of precocious maturation, for reasons that are presently unclear. Given the economic challenges facing the closed containment industry's expansion, it is imperative that best management practices be developed to reduce economic losses from early maturation, in order to assist the sustainable growth of farmed Atlantic salmon production. This review provides a brief summary of published research on factors associated with early salmonid maturation, as well as information from research examining maturation and growout performance of Atlantic salmon in closed containment aquaculture systems.     

The competitiveness of the Chilean salmon aquaculture industry

Abstract

Commercial salmon and trout farming has emerged as a major industry in Chile during the 1990s. Salmon is not a native species to Chile, still excellent climatic conditions are provided for farming. Since 1992 Chile has been the second largest producer of farmed salmon and trout in the world after Norway. This report reviews the development of the Chilean salmonid industry from its early stages until today with respect to production patterns, legislation and main markets. A cost comparison between Chilean and Norwegian farmed salmon is also provided. Finally, the international competitiveness and future challenges of the Chilean salmonid farming industry are analysed.     

Global constraints on rural fishing communities: whose resilience is it anyway?

Sustaining natural resources is regarded as an important component of ecological resilience and commonly assumed to be of similar importance to social and economic vitality for resource‐dependent communities. However, communities may be prevented from benefiting from healthy local resources due to constrained economic or political opportunities. In the case of Alaskan wild salmon, the fisheries are in crisis due to declining economic revenues driven by the proliferation of reliable and increasingly high‐quality products from fish farms around the world. This stands in contrast with many of the world's wild‐capture fisheries where diminished biological abundance has led to fishery collapse. Furthermore, increasing efficiency of salmon farm production, globalization, and dynamic consumer preferences, suggests that the wild salmon industry will continue to be challenged by the adaptability, price and quality of farmed salmon. Conventional responses to reduced revenues by the wild‐capture industry have been to increase economic efficiency through implementing a range of entry entitlement and quota allocation schemes. However, while these mechanisms may improve economic efficiency at a broad scale, they may not benefit local community interests, and in Alaska have precipitated declines in local ownership of the fishery. To be viable, economic efficiency remains a relevant consideration, but in a directionally changing environment (biological, social or economic), communities unable to procure livelihoods from their local resources (through access or value) are likely to seek alternative economic opportunities. The adopted strategies, although logical for communities seeking viability through transformation in a changing world, may not be conducive to resilience of a ‘fishing community’ or the sustainability of their wild fish resources. We use a theoretically grounded systems approach and data from Alaska's Bristol Bay salmon fishery to demonstrate feedbacks between global preferences towards salmon and the trade‐offs inherent when managing for the resilience of wild salmon populations and human communities at different scales.     

Salmon aquaculture in Chile

Abstract

Commercial salmon and trout farming has emerged as a major industry in Chile during the last two decades. Salmon is not a native species to Chile; however, excellent climatic conditions are provided for farming activities in the southern part of the country. After negligible production volumes during the early years, the harvest levels accelerated in the late 1980s, and since 1992 Chile has been the second largest producer of farmed salmon and trout in the world after Norway. This report reviews the development of the Chilean salmonid industry from its early stages until today with respect to production patterns, legislation and main markets. A cost comparison between Chilean and Norwegian farmed salmon is also provided. Finally, the international competitiveness and future challenges of the Chilean salmonid farming industry are analysed.     

Economic analysis of land based farming of salmon

Abstract

Land-based farming of salmon is emerging for a number of reasons. The demand for salmon is increasing in many parts of the world. In recent years there has been limited growth in production due to binding government regulations and environmental challenges in sea-based salmon aquaculture. This is true both for Norway (sea lice, salmon escapes) and Chile (sea lice, disease problems), the two largest producers of salmon. Growing demand and limited expansion in production have made for a very profitable industry. At the same time, there have been technological developments when it comes to land-based farming (a technology used for smolt production and species such as sole and turbot), and cost of production has changed. Currently, land-based salmon farming is in operation or in development in several countries including the USA, Denmark, and Norway. In this paper, the economics of land-based salmon farming in a Norwegian context is presented, with an emphasis on the relative competitiveness of this vis-à-vis sea-based farming. If successful, land-based farming could potentially have an important impact on the dynamics of the salmon market.     

An overview of salmon trout aquaculture in Finland

Abstract

In this case study, we describe the evolution of Finnish salmon trout aquaculture; how salmon trout farming grew as a vital industry, how Finland became the world's leading producer of salmon trout, and how the opening of markets to international competition led to a decline of the industry. The focus is on the continuous interaction between the changing market situation and production decisions. The study reveals the impact of national environmental policy on the competitiveness of the industry. At the moment, the industry is undergoing major structural changes; production has moved to neighbouring countries, and the value chain is concentrated. In future, closer interaction and co‐operation between the actors along the entire fish value chain will be the key factors for success.     

The development of the Norwegian wrasse fishery and the use of wrasses as cleaner fish in the salmon aquaculture industry

Norway leads the world aquaculture production of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and farmed Norwegian Atlantic salmon is currently consumed around the globe. However, sea lice infestation is a major problem faced by the salmon aquaculture industry in Norway and elsewhere. The use of wild-caught cleaner fish, mainly wrasses, has been recommended over the other available methods as the most economical and environmentally friendly option to control sea lice infestation in salmon farming. Here, we review the development of the Norwegian wrasse fishery and the use of wrasses as cleaner fish. In this document, we address the sea lice problem and introduce the main wrasse species employed as cleaner fish, document the cleaning behaviour of wrasses, present the development of a new wrasse fishery associated with the salmon aquaculture industry, and finally, we identify the main challenges associated with the intensive use of wild-caught cleaner wrasses and provide some insight for future directions of the wrasse fishery and further development of aquaculture techniques to supply salmon facilities with domesticated cleaner fish.     

Technology selection—the impact of economic risk on decision making

ABSTRACT

Developing an understanding of economic variance (risk) is critical when evaluating alternative aquaculture production technologies. This article assesses the efficacy of employing a quantitative stochastic analysis technique to support technology selection decision making by undertaking a case study investment assessment of three alternative production expansion strategies (offshore sea-pens, land-based RAS growout and larger post-smolt) for the Tasmanian salmon industry. Results demonstrate that salmon aquaculture is undertaken with considerable underlying levels of economic risk, expansion offshore probably represents the lowest initial capital investment and greatest economic return, and that levels of financial uncertainty increase with land-based RAS production. The study highlights stochastic modeling provides significant “added-value” over single-point deterministic analysis and that developing an appreciation of the input variability is a key component in critically evaluating alternative production technologies.     

Aquaculture and international trade

Abstract

In contrast to the stabilization or decline of wild fishery harvests, aquaculture's contribution to the world fish supply is steadily increasing. Aquaculture has begun to have a major influence on the trade of export‐orientated species such as salmon and shrimp. This paper reviews the role of aquaculture in international trade and the research which has been conducted to examine its influence. Despite the growing significance of aquaculture on international trade, especially for shrimp and salmon, formal analysis of the shrimp trade is sparse, only moderate for salmon, and essentially nonexistent for other species. This paper also presents specific examples of how aquaculture has played an important role in international trade. These include an examination of: (1) the influence of shrimp aquaculture and trade on the development of a shrimp futures contract; and (2) the countervailing duty and antidumping case against the Norwegian farmed salmon industry.     

Betaine supplementation enhances the seawater adaptation of salmon, Salmo salar L.

Abstract. The growth of the Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., aquaculture industry has been tremendous; from a modest beginning, today's world production of salmon farming is close to 260 million tonnes in ten different countries. In particular the last 20–30 years have seen a dramatic increase in annual sales and production.
The methods vary. From exploiting the natural migrations of this anadromous fish, sea ranching has produced a viable industry. However, controlling the entire life cycle in closed systems has been more successful.
The growth of the farming industry is seriously hampered by such factors as diseases and parasites, algae blooms, environmental pollution, sabotage and rough seas. Several of these factors will not easily be eliminated, although methodical research and development could make the fish farming industry more efficient. Most of the fish farming is situated in remote regions, and the product has to be transported to heavy populated areas for sale, often across borders. The approximate average production costs per kilo differ according to the organization of the industry, average salary, the feed costs and the industrial hurdles, expressed as loss of fish, due to a variety of factors. Even though the market is growing, we must expect fierce competition. Farms producing fish of high quality at low cost will survive. The industry needs healthy fish in well-run farms, smart farmers and a government which helps the industry with reasonable regulations, guidance, applied and basic research, and insight into the future.     

Financial ratios and prediction on corporate bankruptcy in the Atlantic salmon industry

ABSTRACT

This article addresses the issue of credit risk in the salmon industry. During the period 2000–2002 the Norwegian salmon industry witnessed a period of low prices leading to a wave of defaults and bankruptcies. The consequences were large monetary losses for both investors and banks, highlighting the importance of early detection of failing firms. Using financial ratios measuring the firms’ financial status prior to this event, two credit risk models are developed; one using logit regression and the other Classification and Regression trees. The performance of the two models developed is compared to a cross-industry benchmark model developed by the Norwegian Central Bank. The model estimated on industry data is better at separating between companies with high and low credit risk in the salmon industry compared to the benchmark model.     

Challenges and emerging technical solutions in on-growing salmon farming

Farming of Atlantic salmon has grown rapidly from its start in the early 1970s until today, with production approaching two million tonnes. Sea cages are the dominant production system for the on-growing stage of salmon farming. It represents an effective production system with lower investment and running costs than land-based systems. The development and improvement of the sea cage farming system has been one of the most important factors for the growth of the salmon farming industry. However, during recent years certain problems related to their placement in the open marine environment have proved highly challenging, increasing operating costs and impacting on industry public relations. The problems are mainly due to parasites, diseases and escape of fish. In this article, emerging technical solutions for solving those problems are described.     

Historical changes in age structure of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in the River Eo, northern Spain

Abstract Variations in the age structure and number of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., running into the River Eo in northern Spain were assessed from catch records of sport fisheries for the period 1949 to 1991. The analysis focused on two periods (1951–1960 and 1981–1991) for which more complete data on fish number, size and age were available. Over the whole period, no evidence for a decline in the total salmon run was found, but the last few years revealed significant changes in both the number and age structure of salmon caught. The catches were mainly composed of multi-sea-winter salmon, and this did not change from the 1950s to the 1980s as the proportion of grilse remained unchanged. However, since 1980, there was a marked decline in both the proportion of 3-sea-winter salmon (versus 2-sea-winter fish) and the frequency of previous spawners among the multi-sea-winter salmon. These changes were probably linked because most of the previous spawners re-entered the river as 3-sea-winter or older salmon. River age of salmon caught in the 1950s was low and constant (about 90% of the catch had smolted at one year) but the mean age of smolting increased in the 1980s.     

Submerged light increases swimming depth and reduces fish density of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. in production cages

Artificial photoperiods that postpone sexual maturation and increase growth are now widely used in the Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. farming industry. Few studies have been carried out to examine the effect of this treatment on fish behaviour and welfare in production cages. In this study, echo‐integration was used to observe the swimming depth and fish density of salmon in 20‐m‐deep production cages illuminated by lamps mounted above the water surface (SURF) or submerged in the cage (SUBS). From January to May, SUBS swam at a greater depth (5–11 m) than SURF (1–3 m) at night. SURF descended and SUBS ascended at dawn, but SUBS were still swimming at greater depth than SURF during the day from January to March. The difference in swimming depth resulted in SURF swimming at a median fish density about twice as high as SUBS at night and up to five times the calculated fish density. SURF increased the utilization of the cage volume as the biomass increased, but fish swimming at the highest density did so at up to 20 times the calculated fish density. The results suggest that salmon position themselves in relation to the artificial light gradient to maintain schooling behaviour and that the use of submersible lights may be a precaution to secure the welfare of caged salmon.     

On the drivers of cost changes in the Norwegian salmon aquaculture sector: a decomposition of a flexible cost function from 2001 to 2014

Abstract

Since 2005, Norwegian salmon farmers have experienced increasing unit costs, contrasting pre-2005 trends characterized by innovations, rapid productivity growth, and diminishing unit costs. This article investigates these cost changes using a panel of salmon producers. The drivers behind cost changes in the industry are identified for the period of 2001–2014 using a flexible cost function. In particular, it is explored how cost changes can be attributable to scale economies, negative productivity shocks, production expansion, and input prices. The results indicate that cost increases in the sector are affected by external factors out of the control of individual firms such as input prices and environmental conditions like sea lice.     

Early ocean distribution of juvenile Chinook salmon in an upwelling ecosystem

Extreme variability in abundance of California salmon populations is often ascribed to ocean conditions, yet relatively little is known about their marine life history. To investigate which ocean conditions influence their distribution and abundance, we surveyed juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) within the California Current (central California [37°30′N) to Newport, Oregon (44°00′N]) for a 2‐week period over three summers (2010–2012). At each station, we measured chlorophyll‐a as an indicator of primary productivity, acoustic‐based metrics of zooplankton density as an indicator of potential prey availability and physical characteristics such as bottom depth, temperature and salinity. We also measured fork lengths and collected genetic samples from each salmon that was caught. Genetic stock identification revealed that the majority of juvenile salmon were from the Central Valley and the Klamath Basin (91–98%). We constructed generalized logistic‐linear negative binomial hurdle models and chose the best model(s) using Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) to determine which covariates influenced the salmon presence and, at locations where salmon were present, determined the variables that influenced their abundance. The probability of salmon presence was highest in shallower waters with a high chlorophyll‐a concentration and close to an individual's natal river. Catch abundance was primarily influenced by year, mean fork length and proximity to natal rivers. At the scale of sampling stations, presence and abundance were not related to acoustic indices of zooplankton density. In the weeks to months after ocean entry, California's juvenile Chinook salmon population appears to be primarily constrained to coastal waters near natal river outlets.     

北斗卫星导航系统在海洋渔业生产中的应用

人类对海洋的过度开发导致海洋渔业产量日益下降,现代化渔业采用先进有效的技术对保持渔业资源的可持续发展具有非常重要的作用。本文阐释了中国当前在渔业生产发展中的问题,指出了在渔业现代化进程中应用北斗卫星导航系统的必要性。通过总结现有国内外相关研究文献,分析了我国渔业生产发展中的三个主要问题,介绍了北斗卫星导航系统的优势和不足,并在此基础上针对北斗卫星导航在渔船安全生产保障系统、渔业生产服务系统以及渔业生产监测管理系统中的作用展开论述,实际应用表明北斗卫星导航系统以其高精度、低成本、全天时、全天候、同时具备短报文通信功能等特点,在现代海洋渔业生产应用中有着不可替代的优势。     

An Analysis of Nearly One Billion Dollars of Aquaculture Grants Made by the US Federal Government from 1990 to 2015

The aquaculture industry relies on federal investments to stimulate aquaculture research and development (R&D). We conducted this study to track federal spending for aquaculture using a large database of 2957 US federal research grants awarded from 1990 to 2015. During that period, 1.04 billion US dollars (USD) were spent on aquaculture research, with 919 million USD from federal agencies and 123 million USD in matching funds. By comparison, over the same time frame, the US Department of Agriculture's R&D spending was 41 billion USD. Federal grant funding for aquaculture had a 37‐fold return on investment since 2000. Microalgae, oysters, salmon and trout, catfish, and shrimp received the most grant support, and the most common topics/disciplines were aquaculture production sciences, aquatic animal health and disease, genetics and breeding, and nutrition. Our findings can be used to identify research gaps and inform federal policy, grant making, and budget allocation.