Regeneration in experimental gaps of subalpine <Emphasis Type="Italic">Picea abies</Emphasis> forest in the Slovenian Alps

In 1998, we analysed regeneration success in four 20 year old medium-sized (600–800 m²) and four small experimental gaps (100–200 m²) in subalpine Norway spruce forest in Triglav National Park, Slovenia. We assessed the influence of site (depressions, slopes), gap size, and position within gap (centre, gap south, and north edge) on regeneration success and interactions between regeneration density, height, height increment, direct and diffuse light, ground vegetation, soil depth, thickness of humus horizons, presence of woody debris, and microrelief. Seedling density was higher in depressions, where more seedlings developed in central positions of gaps in both gap sizes, and in microsites with deeper soils, less competition from ground vegetation and convex microsites. On slopes, a higher seedling density was found in small gaps, and at the northern edge of gaps regardless of gap size. Here, seedling density was negatively influenced by diffuse radiation and positively by soil depth. The results suggest that regeneration should be initiated from medium to large gaps in depressions and small gaps on slopes. Development of established seedlings was enhanced by higher radiation levels on both sites, therefore favourable extension of the gaps would be lateral to northwards.     

Interacting effects of canopy gap, understory vegetation and leaf litter on tree seedling recruitment and composition in tropical secondary forests

We experimentally investigated interacting effects of canopy gaps, understory vegetation and leaf litter on recruitment and mortality of tree seedlings at the community level in a 20-year-old lowland forest in Costa Rica, and tested several predictions based on results of previous studies. We predicted that experimental canopy gaps would greatly enhance tree seedling recruitment, and that leaf litter removal would further enhance recruitment of small-seeded, shade-intolerant seedlings in gaps. We created a large (320–540 m²) gap in the center of 5 out of 10 40 m × 40 m experimental plots, and applied the following treatments bimonthly over a 14-month-period in a factorial, split–split plot design: clipping of understory vegetation (cut, uncut), and leaf litter manipulations (removal, addition, control). As expected, experimental gaps dramatically increased tree seedling recruitment, but gap effects varied among litter treatments. Litter addition reduced recruitment in gaps, but enhanced recruitment under intact canopy. Species composition of recruits also differed markedly between gap treatments: several small-seeded pioneer and long-lived pioneer species recruited almost exclusively in gaps. In contrast, a few medium-to-large-seeded shade-tolerant species recruited predominantly under intact canopy. Leaf litter represents a major barrier for seedling emergence and establishment of small-seeded, shade-intolerant species, but enhances emergence and establishment of large-seeded, shade-tolerant species, possibly through increased humidity and reduced detection by predators. Periodic clipping of the understory vegetation marginally reduced tree seedling mortality, but only in experimental gaps, where understory vegetation cover was greatly enhanced compared to intact canopy conditions. Successful regeneration of commercially valuable long-lived pioneer trees that dominate the forest canopy may require clear-cutting, as well as weeding and site preparation (litter removal) treatments in felling clearings. Management systems that mimic natural canopy gaps (reduced-impact selective logging) could favor the regeneration of shade-tolerant tree species, potentially accelerating convergence to old-growth forest composition. In contrast, systems that produce large canopy openings (clear-cutting) may re-initiate succession, potentially leading to less diverse but perhaps more easily managed “natural plantations” of long-lived pioneer tree species.     

Tree regeneration in gap-understory mosaics in a subtropical Shorea robusta(Sal) forest

Spatial variation in tree-regeneration density is attributed to the specialization of tree species to light availability for germination and growth. Light availability,in turn, varies across the gap-understorey mosaic. Canopy gaps provide an important habitat for the regeneration of tree species that would otherwise be suppressed in the understory. In subtropical forests, there is still a knowledge-gap relating to how canopy disturbances influence tree-regeneration patterns at local scale, and if they disproportionately favor regeneration of certain species. We aim to analyze whether canopy gaps promote tree regeneration, and tree species are specialized to gaps or understory for germination and growth. We sampled vegetation in 128 plots(0.01 ha), equally distributed in gaps and below canopy, in two subtropical Shorea robusta Gaertn.(Sal) forests in Nepal, recording the number of tree seedlings and saplings in each plot. We compared the regeneration density of seedlings and saplings separately between gaps and the understorey. The mean densities of seedlings and saplings were higher in the gaps at both sites;although there was no difference in the seedling density of the majority of the species between the habitats. No species were confined to either gap or understorey at the seedling stage. We conclude that gaps are not critical for the germination of tree species in Sal forests but these are an important habitat for enabling seedlings to survive into saplings. The classification of trees into regeneration guilds mainly based on germination does not apply to the majority of tree species in subtropical Sal forests. Our results reaffirm that gap creation promotes tree regeneration by favouring seedling survival and growth and can influence forest management for conservation, as well as for plantations.     

Regeneration patterns of Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) in hardwood-dominated forests in Virginia, USA

Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) is a moderately shade-tolerant species that co-occurs with hardwood tree species in many forests of the eastern United States, as well as in pure stands. The species is valued for its timber, as well as for wildlife and recreation. Regeneration of this species is somewhat unpredictable and often occurs in patches of similarly-aged cohorts. We described the regeneration patterns of this species and examined their relation to environmental variables within hardwood forests of southwestern Virginia, USA. An average of 5.3 white pine patches per ha were observed in this study. The majority of patches consisted of saplings (85%), with 9% of patches in pole size classes, and 6% in seedling size classes. The average density of patches was 43.5 stems with an average age of 20 years. The size of patches averaged 80.6 m². The total density of seedlings and the number of regeneration patches of all sizes of regeneration (seedlings, saplings, and poles) in plots was related to the surrounding density of large white pine trees (potential seed trees). The density of seedlings or patches was not significantly related to current vegetation cover or soil surface cover variables, but more than half of regeneration patches were located in or adjacent to old canopy gaps, most of which were old logging gaps. While seedling regeneration may occur within the understory of these forests near seed trees, advancement to the sapling and pole stage appears to be associated with canopy gap formation.     

Slow responses of understory plants of maple-dominated forests to white-tailed deer experimental exclusion

We examined the response of understory plants in mature maple-dominated forests of southern Québec, Canada, following about 30 years of high deer densities, using a deer exclosure experiment. An exclosure and a paired control of 625 m² each were established on six sites in 1998. An exclosure and a paired control of 16 m² were added at each of the same sites in 2003 but under a recent canopy gap to determine if light could enhance plant responses. We measured plant richness and abundance, and aboveground biomass of different plant groups for 8 years in the understory plots and for 3 years in the canopy gaps. Four herbaceous species were also monitored individually in the same plots. No significant differences between treatments were found in plots under forest cover, except for lateral obstruction at 0–50 cm height which was higher in the exclosures. Under canopy gaps, however, tree seedling and total plant abundance were higher in deer exclosures than in control plots. Trillium erectum recovered partially as individuals were taller, had larger leaves and more frequently produced a flower or a fruit in the absence of deer browsing under forest cover. To a lesser extent, Erythronium americanum and Maianthemum canadense also exhibited signs of recovery but were still at the single-leaf stage after 8 years of recovery. In general, the different plant groups exhibited little recovery following deer exclusion, possibly because of the low light levels that prevailed in the understory of undisturbed maple-dominated forests. The higher latitude of the present study could also contribute to the slow recovery rates of the different groups of plants compared to studies conducted in northeastern USA. Variability among sites and years had an effect on detection of statistically significant differences. Trends are however appearing over time, suggesting that many understory plants are recovering very slowly following deer exclusion. Our results emphasize the importance of studying large herbivore–forest interactions on different groups of plants, but also on specific species, and under different latitudes to be fully understood.     

Regeneration dynamics of Sitka spruce in artificially created forest gaps

This study examined the variation in the development of naturally regenerated and planted seedlings of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) within gaps cut in a 32-year-old stand of the same species. The circular gaps were 20 m in diameter and designed to allow sunlight into only half of the gap floor at midsummer given the latitude of 56°45′N. Eight plots (8 m × 3 m) were laid out along a north–south transect through each gap (four within the gap and two each under the closed canopy north and south of the gap). Each plot was sub-divided and seedlings were planted into one part and the other part was left to naturally regenerate. In subsequent seasons, plots were further subdivided into ‘weed free’ and ‘vegetation left untouched’. Results showed that while the two central plots within the gaps had the highest value of canopy openness, the highest accumulated temperature and lowest soil moisture were recorded in plots that received direct sunlight. However, level of germination was significantly higher in the shaded area of the gap than in the part that received direct sunshine suggesting that higher moisture levels in shaded areas are important to successful germination. Minimal germination was recorded in the plots beneath the canopy. Seedling survival was significantly influenced by the influx of competing vegetation, but only in the part of the gaps that received direct sunlight. The success of Sitka spruce regeneration within gaps appears to depend on sufficient moisture and light to support regeneration and early growth, but not too much light to encourage the development of competing vegetation. The permanently shaded areas of the gaps appeared to offer ground conditions with sufficient moisture and light to ensure successful germination and early growth of seedlings, but without excessive competition from other vegetation.     

Bird use of logging gaps in a subtropical mountain forest: The influence of habitat structure and resource abundance in the Yungas of Argentina

Selective logging is one of the main economical activities in tropical and subtropical forests. While most of the effects of this activity on bird communities have been studied by comparing exploited vs. non-exploited areas; the use of human-created treefall gaps by birds is relatively unknown. We studied habitat structure, resource abundance (fruits, flowers and arthropods) and bird activity in logging gaps of different age (1-year-old and 10- to 20-year-old) in a mountain forest (Yungas) of northwest Argentina in both dry and wet seasons. In less than a year after creation, short herbs colonize logging gaps increasing the abundance of arthropods in the ground and the activity of understory insectivores. During dry seasons recently created gaps become an important source of resources for understory frugivores-insectivores. Later on in succession logging gaps are invaded by exotic graminoid vegetation and tall herbs (dispersed through extraction tracks) which can impede the colonization and development of pioneer trees and natural regeneration. Probably as a consequence of a high abundance of fruits and flowers in the understory and a very low abundance of these resources in the canopy, old gaps were mainly used by understory frugivores-insectivores while arboreal frugivores were rare. Because arboreal frugivores disperse most tree seeds in tropical and subtropical forests, the low activity of this guild in logging gaps contribute to the low observed regeneration. Sustainable timber harvest in tropical and subtropical forests should include gap and logging track management to minimize the invasion by exotic graminoid vegetation and facilitate natural succession.     

Understory vegetation response after 30 years of interval prescribed burning in two ponderosa pine sites in northern Arizona,USA

Southwestern USA ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa C. Lawson var. scopulorum Engelm.) forests evolved with frequent surface fires and have changed dramatically over the last century. Overstory tree density has sharply increased while abundance of understory vegetation has declined primarily due to the near cessation of fires. We examined effects of varying prescribed fire-return intervals (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 years, plus unburned) on the abundance and composition of understory vegetation in 2007 and 2008 after 30+ years of fall prescribed burning at two ponderosa pine sites. We found that after 30 years, overstory canopy cover remained high, while understory plant canopy cover was low, averaging <12% on all burn intervals. We attributed the weak understory response to a few factors – the most important of which was the high overstory cover at both sites. Graminoid cover and cover of the major grass species, Elymus elymoides (squirreltail), increased on shorter fire-return intervals compared to unburned plots, but only at one site. Community composition differed significantly between shorter fire-return intervals and unburned plots at one site, but not the other. For several response variables, precipitation levels appeared to have a stronger effect than treatments. Our findings suggest that low-severity burn treatments in southwestern ponderosa pine forests, especially those that do not decrease overstory cover, are minimally effective in increasing understory plant cover. Thinning of these dense forests along with prescribed burning is necessary to increase cover of understory vegetation.     

雪灾干扰下林窗对木荷幼苗更新的影响

林窗干扰是维持森林生态系统的重要驱动力之一,对种子萌发、幼苗等自然更新过程、森林物种组成和动态、森林生物多样性的维持具有重要作用。本研究以2008年雪灾干扰后的浙江江郎山木荷林为研究对象,对木荷林窗大小结构、幼苗更新、生长等进行调查研究,结果表明:扩展林窗以50 100 m2的林窗个数最多(占总数的45.45%),各等级林窗中以50 100 m2的林窗占总面积比例最大(占总面积的30.31%)。林窗中木荷幼苗的平均高度和地径较对照林分分别高1.44 cm和0.61 mm,幼树在林窗中的平均高度和地径则比对照林分中分别高45.37 cm和5.00 mm且差异显著;林窗大小对木荷幼苗、幼树的高度和地径生长影响显著,中林窗中幼苗的高度和地径均高于小林窗和大林窗中的幼苗且差异均显著(F=4.893,P=0.007;F=5.203,P=0.004;n=357);幼树的地径在不同大小林窗中差异显著(F=3.569,P=0.037;n=43)。林窗幼苗的更新密度随着林窗面积的增大而增大,在林窗面积达到76 m2时,更新密度达到最大值,而后随着林窗面积的增大下降;中林窗和小林窗中更新苗木以低矮植株(1级、2级)为主,面积100 m2大林窗中,木荷幼苗生长较快。与他人研究的森林天然林窗相比,雪灾干扰后改变了林窗的大小分布结构和面积,50 100 m2的林窗比例较大,一定程度上更利于幼苗更新,具有相对较大的林窗幼苗更新密度;不论林窗大小,林窗内的更新幼苗都比林内多,郁闭度较大的林内或大面积的空地上都不利于更新幼苗的生长。因此,从受灾木荷林窗大小结构、幼苗更新、生长等来看,中林窗是幼苗适宜更新的面积,为木荷灾后恢复与重建提供了科学依据。     

巴山冷杉-牛皮桦混交林乔木更新及土壤化学性质对更新的影响

调查太白山巴山冷杉-牛皮桦混交林林下与林隙乔木更新及土壤化学性质,分析林隙及土壤化学性质对乔木更新的影响.结果表明:巴山冷杉-牛皮桦混交林乔木更新苗密度较小,为0.059株·m-2,但林下与林隙均以巴山冷杉更新苗为主;林下与林隙乔木更新苗密度差异不显著(P=0.160),但巴山冷杉幼苗密度表现为林隙内显著高于林下(P =0.012);相关分析表明,小林隙更利于巴山冷杉更新(r=- 0.397,P=0.030),而林隙大小对牛皮桦更新没有显著影响(r=0.125,P=0.511);在林下,土壤碱解N、全P含量和pH值与牛皮桦更新苗密度呈显著正相关;在林隙内,土壤全P和有效P含量与巴山冷杉更新苗密度呈显著负相关,全P含量与牛皮桦幼树密度呈显著负相关;林下土壤有机质含量、全N含量和有效P含量及林隙土壤pH值、有机质含量、全N含量和碱解N含量与牛皮桦和巴山冷杉更新苗密度均没有显著相关关系;林下土壤pH值显著高于林隙,而有机质、全N、碱解N、全P和有效P含量显著低于林隙.     

林分间隙形成后季节性干旱的娑罗双树原始林物种多样性及苗木再生(英文)

本文调查了尼泊尔季节性干旱的娑罗双树原始林两种生态位(间隙和全郁闭)下树种多样性及苗木再生情况,并对物种多样性指标和苗木再生属性与林分间隙特征进行了相关性分析。结果表明,间隙生态位下乔木和灌木立木度高于全郁闭。间隙生态位下娑罗双树和榄仁树的幼苗密度也高于全郁闭,但是油榄仁和海南蒲桃的比较结果恰好相反。在幼苗层物种多样性指标(complement of Simpson index,Evenness index,and species-individual ratio)在间隙生态位要低于全郁闭条件。间隙大小能够解释物种丰富度和物种建立速率。多年多样伐木形成的林分间隙下娑罗双树幼苗密度要高于同一年内单一或多样伐木。结论:林分间隙的物种多样性通过增加幼苗密度来维持,并且适于娑罗双树再生。此外,林分间隙的其它属性也会影响物种多样性和苗木再生。     

Effects of site preparation on emergence and early establishment of Larix olgensis in montane regions of northeastern China

Larix olgensis is one of the important commercial timber tree species in northeastern China, but it does not naturally regenerate in L. olgensis forests even after cutting. To identify the causes of the regeneration failure, the authors tested the effects of site preparation in a thinned stand and in a clearcut on the emergence and early establishment of L. olgensis seedlings. The results indicated that there was no correlation between cumulative emergence percentage (CEP) of L. olgensis seedlings and canopy openness, but the CEP was significantly affected by site preparation (P < 0.001). The average seedling survival rates after treatments consisting of removing both litter cover and understory vegetation cover were significantly higher in the clearcut than in the thinned stand (P < 0.001). Without site preparation, all seedlings in both the thinned stand and the clearcut disappeared within the first growing season, meaning that ground cover (understory vegetation cover and litter cover) was not beneficial to seedling survival. The average growth of seedlings exhibited significant differences between the thinned stand and the clearcut, and among the site preparations (P < 0.001). Intensely thinned stands without ground cover improved seedling growth. These results imply that light and ground cover might be the main factors limiting the early establishment of L. olgensis seedlings in managed plantation forests     

Survival and growth of upland oak and co-occurring competitor seedlings following single and repeated prescribed fires

Studies within and outside the U.S. indicate recurring oak (Quercus spp.) regeneration problems. In deciduous forests of the eastern U.S., a prevailing explanation for this trend is fire suppression leading to high competitor abundance and low understory light. In response, prescribed fire is increasingly used as a management tool to remedy these conditions and encourage future oak establishment and growth. Within eastern Kentucky, we implemented single and repeated (3×) prescribed fires over a 6-yr period (2002–2007). Pre- and post-burn, we quantified canopy cover and oak seedling survival and growth compared to other woody seedlings deemed potential competitors, primarily red maple (Acer rubrum L.) and sassafras (Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees.). Burning temporarily decreased canopy cover 3–10%, but cover rebounded the subsequent growing season. Repeated burning ultimately produced canopy cover about 6% lower than sites unburned and burned once, suggesting a cumulative effect on understory light. Red maple exhibited low survival (∼40%) following single and repeated burns, but growth remained similar to unburned seedlings. Burning had little impact on sassafras survival and led to total height and basal diameters 2× greater than unburned seedlings. A single burn had no impact on red oak (Erythrobalanus spp.) survival and increased height and basal diameters 25–30%, but this positive growth response was driven by seedlings on several plots which experienced high burn temperatures and consequently high overstory mortality. White oaks (Leucobalanus spp.), however, exhibited twice as high mortality compared to those unburned, with no change in growth parameters. Repeated burning negatively impacted survival and growth of both oak groups compared to unburned seedlings. With both burn regimes, oaks with smaller pre-burn basal diameters exhibited the lowest post-burn survival. Thus, despite the ability of prescribed burns to temporarily increase understory light and reduce red maple survival, neither single or repeated burns placed oaks in an improved competitive position. These findings result from a combination of highly variable yet interdependent factors including the (1) life history traits of oaks compared to their co-occurring competitors, (2) pre-burn stature of pre-existing oak seedlings, and (3) variability in fire temperature and effects on understory light.     

Prescribed burning and understory composition in a temperate deciduous forest,Ohio, USA

Since the advent of widespread suppression in the mid-20th century, fire has been relatively rare in deciduous forests of the eastern United States. However, widespread prescribed burning has recently been proposed as a management tool to favor oak (Quercus spp.) regeneration. To examine the potential effects of fire introduction on the understory community, we experimentally burned small plots and simulated aspects of fire at a forested site in southeastern Ohio. Treatments included two burn intensities, litter removal, increased soil pH, and a control. Treatments were arranged in a randomized block design in two landscape positions (dry upland and moist lowland) and two canopy conditions (gap, no gap). Post-fire vegetation was identified to species, and stems were counted 1, 3, and 14 months after burning. Community composition was more strongly affected by fire in upland plots than in lowlands, but was not affected by canopy openness. Both cool and hot burns reduced post-fire seedling emergence of Acer rubrum, a common overstory tree. Hot burns facilitated germination of Vitis spp., Rhus glabra, and Phytolacca americana, species common in disturbed habitats, and increased graminoid abundance. Cool burns and litter removal facilitated germination of Erechtites hieracifolia and Liriodendron tulipifera suggesting that litter removal is the mechanism by which fire favors colonization. These results suggest that fire applied frequently in the Central Hardwoods Region would cause compositional shifts to graminoids and disturbance-adapted forbs by increasing germination from the seed bank. Fire did not favor species with dormant underground buds, as studies in other ecosystems would suggest. Vegetational responses were noticeably weaker in the second year after burning, indicating that a single fire has only a short-term effect.     

Light-dependent development of two competitive species (Rubus idaeus, Cytisus scoparius) colonizing gaps in temperate forest

Forest regeneration can be inhibited by competition for environmental resources (water, nutrients, light) between tree seedlings and some competitive species that are generally light-demanding species developing in gaps. The study’s aim was to quantify the development of two competitive species (Rubus idaeus and Cytisus scoparius) present in the chaîne des Puys, France, relatively to light in gaps inside Picea abies stands. On 29 transects linking the stand to the gap centre (223 points), light intensity was measured (0–80% of relative light) and floristic measurements (cover and height of the different species) were done. Development of both competitive species is positively connected to light, with a bell-shaped curve with a maximum of 40–50% for R. idaeus and a quite constant increase to 80% (maximum of light recorded in the experimentation) for C. scoparius. These results are discussed relatively to understorey vegetation management in order to favour forest regeneration.     

Species diversity and regeneration of old-growth seasonally dry Shorea robusta forests following gap formation

Diversity and regeneration of woody species were investigated in two ecological niches viz. gap and intact vegetation in old-growth seasonally dry Shorea robusta (Gaertn. f.) forests in Nepal. We also related varieties of diversity measures and regeneration attributes to gap characteristics. Stem density of tree and shrub components is higher in the gap than in the intact vegetation. Seedling densities of S. robusta and Terminalia alata (B. Heyne ex Roth.) are higher in the gap than in the intact vegetation, while contrary result is observed for T. bellirica (Gaertn. ex Roxb.) and Syzigium cumini (L. Skeels) in term of seedling density. The complement of Simpson index, Evenness index, and species-individual ratio in the seedling layer are lower in the gap than the intact vegetation. Gap size can explain species richness and species establishment rate. Gaps created by multiple tree falls in different years have higher seedling density of S. robusta than gaps created by single and/or multiple tree falls in the same year. In conclusion, gaps maintain species diversity by increasing seedling density, and favor regeneration of Sal forests. In addition to gap size, other gap attributes also affect species diversity and regeneration. Foundation Project: The study was supported by Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA).     

Mechanical cleaning and prescribed burning for recruiting commercial tree regeneration in a Bolivian dry forest

A critical component of sustainable forest management is the regeneration of commercially valuable tree species. Mechanical cleaning with machetes and chainsaws, prescribed burning, and a combination of both treatments were applied to recently-created logging gaps in a Bolivian dry forest to evaluate their impact on the natural regeneration of commercial tree species and on control of competing vegetation. The three treatments and an untreated control were applied to logging gaps during the dry season of 1998 and replicated ten times. Eight months following burning, the density of commercial tree regeneration in gaps did not differ statistically among treatments. Relative height growth of total commercial regeneration also did not differ among treatments, although it did vary by species. Reduction in competing vegetation following the application of site preparation treatments was significantly higher, but competing plant cover was beginning to converge among treatments after eight months. Despite better control of competing vegetation, early recruitment and growth responses to burning and cleaning of vegetation in logging gaps do not appear to justify application of these treatments in this forest, especially considering their high costs.     

Long-term response of planted conifers, natural regeneration, and vegetation to harvesting, scalping, and weeding on a boreal mixedwood site

This study reports 14th-year response of a boreal mixedwood stand to different harvest intensities (uncut, 50% partial cut with and without removal of residuals after 3 years, and clearcut), spot site preparation treatments (none and scalped), and chemical weeding frequencies (none, single, and multiple) in northeastern Ontario. The response variables include the survival and growth of planted white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.), height and density of natural regeneration and shrubs, and cover of shrubs and non-woody vegetation. Harvesting and weeding generally improved survival and growth of planted trees, although white spruce survival did not significantly differ among the three weeding frequencies. Harvesting tended to increase heights of hardwood (mostly trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.)) and conifer (largely balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.).) natural regeneration, cover and density of shrubs, and cover of herbs, lichens, and ferns. Chemical weeding reduced height, density and cover of shrubs, height and density of hardwood regeneration, and fern cover, but increased moss and lichen cover. Spot scalping did not significantly affect planted seedling, natural regeneration, or the vegetation.Maximum survival and growth of planted white spruce and jack pine were achieved using a combination of clearcutting and multiple weeding. However, partial cutting followed by a single weeding produced acceptable survival and reasonable growth of planted trees, particularly for white spruce. Partial canopy removal alone substantially reduced the amount of hardwood regeneration, relative to clearcutting, but did not adequately suppress understory shrubs. Significant improvement in seedling growth following multiple weedings was evident primarily in the complete canopy removal treatments: 50% partial cut with removal of residuals after 3 years and clearcut. While the effects of harvesting and weeding on planted crop trees found in the 5th-year assessments generally persisted at year 14, survival decreased, likely due to light competition from developing hardwood and shrubs.     

Canopy tree development and undergrowth bamboo dynamics in old-growth Abies–Betula forests in southwestern China: a 12-year study

Interactions between forest canopy characteristics and plants in the forest understory are important determinants of forest community structure and dynamics. In the highlands of southwestern, China the dwarf bamboo Bashania fangiana Yi is an understory dominant beneath a mixed canopy of the evergreen Abies faxoniana (Rheder & Wilson) and the deciduous Betula utilis (D. Don). The goal of this study was to better understand the role of bamboo dominance, canopy characteristics, and periodic bamboo dieback on forest development. To achieve this goal, we measured tree seedling, tree saplings, and trees, forest canopy characteristics, and bamboo cover in permanent forest (n = 4) and gap plots (n = 31) in a mixed A. faxoniana and B. utilis forest in Sichuan, China. Dwarf bamboos died off in 1983 in the gap plots, and in three of the four forest plots. Forest development was assessed for the period 1984–1996. The seedling bank in forest and gap plots increased after bamboo die-off. A. faxoniana seedlings increased more than B. utilis in forest plots; the opposite pattern characterized gap plots. The proportion of seedlings on raised micro-sites on the forest floor also changed and new seedling were more abundant on the forest floor. By 1996, bamboo seedling cover and biomass had recovered to ca. 45% or their pre-flowering values. Rates of bamboo seedling recovery were faster beneath canopy gaps and deciduous trees than beneath forest or evergreen trees. Tree mortality exceeded recruitment in plots with dense bamboo; the opposite pattern was found in the plot with little bamboo. The mortality rate for B. utilis trees (2.4% year⁻¹) was higher than that for A. faxoniana (0.8% year⁻¹) and forests with dense bamboos became more open over the census period. Tree mortality was size-dependent and intermediate sized trees had the lowest rates of mortality. Stand basal area increased mainly due to greater basal area gain than loss for A. faxoniana. Interactions between tree species life history, canopy type, and bamboo life-cycles create heterogeneous conditions that influence tree and bamboo regeneration and contribute to the coexistence of A. faxoniana and B. utilis in old-growth forests in southwestern China.     

Positive association between understory species richness and a dominant shrub species (Corylus avellana) in a boreonemoral spruce forest

Old growth stands of boreonemoral spruce (Picea abies) forests frequently have a shrub layer dominated by hazel (Corylus avellana) – a species which is generally excluded in intensively managed forests due to clearcutting activities. We sampled understory species composition, richness and biomass, as well as environmental variables beneath these two species and also within forest ‘gaps’ in order to determine the effect of overstory species on understory vegetation. Species richness and biomass of herbaceous plants was significantly greater under Corylus compared with plots under Picea and in forest gaps. Indicator species analysis found that many species were significantly associated with Corylus. We found 45% of the total species found under woody plants occurred exclusively under Corylus. Light availability in spring and summer was higher in gaps than under forest cover but no difference was found between plots under Corylus and Picea. Hence, reductions in light availability cannot explain the differences in species composition. However, Ellenberg indicator values showed that more light demanding species were found under Corylus compared to Picea, but most light demanding species were found in gaps. The litter layer under Picea was three times thicker than under Corylus and this may be an important mechanism determining differences in understory composition and richness between the woody species. The presence of Corylus is an important factor enhancing local diversity and small-scale species variation within coniferous stands. Hence, management should maintain areas of Corylus shrubs to maintain understory species diversity in boreal forests.