Integrating science and policy development: case of the national research council and US national policy focused on non-federal forests

Policy development is a sequence of political events, each of which is improved with information resulting from scientific inquiry. Science can help identify important issues, broaden the range of policy options, clarify relationships between objectives and policies, and identify risk and uncertainty associated with policies. The National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences reviewed the scientific basis for federal policies focused on non-federal forests (200 000 000 ha) in the United States. The science review resulted in seven broad recommendations for national action. In retrospect, the review demonstrated that complex administrative issues challenge science, discipline orientation of science often detracts from effective policy development, conflicting scientific evidence can complicate policy decisions, scientific models often suggest more certainty to policy development than actually exists, partisan driven science frequently confuses policy development, and scientific information can conflict with the political necessity to agree on a policy.     

Poor regulatory capacity limits the ability of science to influence the management of mahogany

Decades of research have had virtually no impact on harvesting rates or harvesting practices for mahogany (Swietenia spp.), among the most valuable timber species of Latin America. Despite the existence of science-based regulations, mahogany is rapidly and often illegally harvested to the point where its density is so depleted that logging is no longer commercially viable. The lack of influence of science on forest management is not a result of scientific deficiency; rather, it is a political and economic failure to implement existing forest management policies. Until political will and regulatory capacity for enforcement exist or until buyers insist on meaningful verification that shipments were legally obtained, there is little incentive for reform and policies regulating the use of mahogany will not be implemented. Thus, under present conditions, there is little opportunity for science to influence the fate of mahogany. The case study of mahogany provides an excellent example not only of the difficulty for research to inform forest management, but also of demonstrating the key elements necessary for effective implementation of any forest policy.     

Communication between forest scientists and forest policy-makers in Europe — A survey on both sides of the science/policy interface

Improving communication in the science/policy interface has received increased attention from scientists and policy-makers in recent years. This paper discusses recent science/policy interface literature and reports on the results of two surveys, sent out to forest scientists and forest policy-makers, asking them to evaluate communication in the forest science/policy interface in Europe. The questionnaires are based on a model of the communication process between scientists and policy-makers which was developed for this study, comprising information sources, channels, types and topics of information. The results indicate that policy-makers and scientists largely share the same ideas on how they should communicate with each other. However, the results also show that policy-makers' expectations from science differ from scientists' estimations on what policy-makers consider relevant topics of scientific information. Another result of the study is that scientists and policy-makers give largely the same suggestions for improving communication in the science/policy interface.     

Constraints and opportunities to forest policy implementation in Albania

Although forest statutes are formulated with the intent of achieving selected goals and objectives, the gap between such intent and the actual implementation remains wide in Albania. Even though the current unstable political and economic situation has made forest policy implementation uncertain and disordered, it is still possible to fit the process into models and frameworks. In a ‘top-down’ approach, the constraints that lead to implementation failures are identified and assessed by analysing factors or variables thought to influence the process. An active involvement of the stakeholders in the formulation of forest policies will considerably facilitate the process of choosing effective policy tools according to criteria adopted. Policy makers in Albania should utilise more incentive-based approaches in addition to punitive measures that dominate the current forest legislation. Developing the evaluation capacity of forestry-related institutions will assist in the formulation of appropriate policies and increase the chances of successful implementation.     

Analyzing the perception of deforestation drivers by African policy makers in light of possible REDD+ policy responses

As REDD+ countries are moving towards the implementation phase of their national REDD+ programs, it becomes crucial to better understand what drives deforestation in order to identify policy responses. This however, remains challenging because, while the number of scientific assessments of deforestation drivers is increasing, they often reach diverging conclusions. Deforestation drivers can have long underlying causal chains and take different shapes depending on the perspective that is chosen. As states are the official owners of forests in most African countries, analyzing the perspective of policy makers on deforestation in this context, helps revealing deforestation drivers that are harder to quantify, define and measure with usual proxies. It also potentially allows identifying politically and institutionally feasible deforestation reduction measures.In this paper content analysis is used to assess how African policy makers perceive deforestation drivers. We find that they strongly emphasize the role of institutional and policy drivers. Furthermore, we find that some of the complex issues related to forest governance in general, can be narrowed down to very specific problems. In light of these findings, we will argue that mechanisms and standards have to be found to allow institutional and policy drivers of deforestation to be addressed in the result-based payments phase of REDD+.     

森林社会效益价值评价研究综述

对森林社会效益的认识可以追溯到18世纪的德国,主要是由于对森林美学的研究而引起的,其评价研究始于20世纪40年代.对森林社会效益,目前国内外还没有形成一个明确的、权威的定义,多数定义主要是对森林社会效益内容的描述、列举,还缺乏一个明确的、本质性的界定,还需要从经济学、生态学、环境经济学、林学和社会学等角度进行探索、研究.对评价内容也没有形成统一的认识,也处在认识、研究之中.比较认同的评价内容是森林提供的就业机会、森林游憩和森林的科学、文化、历史价值.森林社会效益的价值评价方法的研究,更是一个复杂的系统工程,目前,对森林提供的就业机会主要采用投入产出法、指数法评价;对森林游憩价值主要采用旅行费用法等评价;对森林科学、文化、历史价值主要采用指标评价法、条件价值法和综合模型评价法等评价.     

德国杜能研究所林业科研创新机制及其启示

林业高水平发展离不开政府的科学决策和政策支撑。文中以德国杜能研究所为例,对其在林业领域的科学研究和政策咨询工作进行梳理,分析其重点科研领域和方向,归纳其创新研究机制,包括畅通的跨所协作、全面的监测网络、多维度的绩效评价机制、注重实效的科学政策咨询、互补的科研合作机制和不断优化的公共沟通策略;在此基础上,提出对我国林业科研支持政策制定的启示,包括科技创新应以林业发展政策为导向、积极推动跨学科研究、注重林业软科学研究、建立支撑科研和政策咨询的数据基础,以提升我国林业科学研究和政策咨询水平,促进林业高质量发展。     

Improving the flow of scientific information across the interface of forest science and policy

The ever-expanding knowledge base of forest science is a challenge for scientists, the public and decision-makers to incorporate into forest policy and management. Scientific assessments have been used as a process to synthesize information on a variety of resource issues, including climatic change. As a process of communication, three attributes of assessments, assessment capacity, stakeholder participation, and articulation of uncertainty, can strongly influence the ability of the assessments to communicate scientific information. The institutional structure of the USDA Forest Service to conduct resource assessments has allowed a sustained effort to conduct periodic synthesis of scientific information and to address new policy issues, such as climate change. The US National Assessment on Climate Variability and Change engaged diverse stakeholders, such as public and private decision-makers, resource and environmental managers, the general public and scientific experts in a broad national and regional dialogue about changes in climate, their impacts, and what can be done to adapt to an uncertain and continuously changing climate. Both the National Assessment and the Third Assessment Report of the International Panel on Climate Change incorporated a language of uncertainty to describe consensus of the scientific community on the report's conclusions. These attributes are important elements of improving the flow of information across the science–policy interface.     

Forestry in the Ukraine: the road ahead?

The economy of the Ukraine is in transition from a communist command-and-control to a capitalist system. In this paper, we describe the current state of its forest resources, the structure of its forestry and wood processing sectors, and the problems facing policy makers. While the forest sector should be, and still has the potential to become, an engine for economic growth, the combination of past exploitation and the slow pace of economic reform are major obstacles to implementing rational forest policies. Given the right economic incentives and appropriate forest policies, it may still be possible for the Ukraine to improve its future timber supply while enjoying environmental benefits from its forests. However, this requires economic and institutional reforms beyond the forest sector.     

Monitoring Sustainable Forest Management in the Pacific Rim Region

Summary

The Pacific Rim is rich in forest resources. It contains the world's largest contiguous forest areas, high levels of biodiversity, millions of forest-dependent people, and the world's leading wood-product exporting and importing nations. However, because of a range of issues, the Pacific Rim region is also experiencing high rates of deforestation and forest degradation. An important step in addressing these issues and moving toward sustainable forest management is improved monitoring and information reporting at the local, national, and international levels. A number of criteria and indicators initiatives have been developed throughout the countries of the Pacific Rim. These have ranged from international processes to local initiatives such as forest certification. Although there is considerable variability in the issues facing forest policy makers in the countries of the Pacific Rim, it is often expected that criteria and indicators will reflect a level of comparability. This paper presents the results of a comparative analysis designed to identify similarities and differences in sustainable forest management criteria and indicators initiatives in the Pacific Rim region. When considered in the context of globalization, the research findings support international efforts to encourage comparability in sustainable forest management-related monitoring and information reporting.     

Reprint of: When peer-reviewed publications are not enough! Delivering science for natural resource management

Over the last century, natural resource management on forest lands has shifted from a singular focus on resource extraction to many foci, such as recreation, tourism, conservation, view-scapes, cultural and spiritual values, sustainability, and other values. As a result, the information needs of land managers must now include social and cultural values. In addition, the public's interest in having greater participation in land management decisions and in generating scientific knowledge has never been greater. The generation of scientific knowledge which is expressed primarily through conventional means – such as peer-reviewed publications targeting academics and technology transfer (e.g., patents, licenses, agreements) primarily for government and industry – does not always satisfy the needs of resource managers and public. In recent decades, there has been rapid growth of methods to help bridge this gap by better connecting new knowledge and knowledge generation with public needs. The U.S. Forest Service is making science delivery as important goal as science creation, including structural institutional changes at the interface among researchers, resource managers, and the public, allocating an appropriate portion of project funding specifically for delivery. The Forest Service is considering increasing its use of citizen science and participatory research – which brings resource managers, decision makers, and the public into the research process to varying extents – as part of the agency's science delivery efforts. Here we explore citizen science and participatory research as possible vehicles to augment existing science delivery efforts from the perspective of a federal land management agency. We found that these mechanisms facilitate public involvement in fundamentally different ways. Depending on the type of research and desired use of research outcomes, either citizen science or participatory research could enhance the use of science in some natural resource management discussions, possibly leading to supportable solutions.     

森林生物多样性减少的机理和保护对策研究

文章对国内外森林生物多样性减少的情况及原因进行了概述,认为保护生物多样性必须从根本原因着手,采用价格体系和市场机制等激励措施,阻止社会经济活动的过度扩张。研究森林生物多样性减少的机理和保护对策,对从深层次上掌握森林生物多样性保护面临的主要威胁和如何从根本上保护提供了第一手资料,对制定保护政策和公众参与等有重要的意义和推广应用价值。     

The use of knowledge in evidence-informed voluntary conservation of Finnish forests

Despite calls for evidence-based policies, the process of using evidence in forest conservation policy implementation has remained unclear. In this paper, we focus on voluntary conservation and investigate complex ways to use evidence in implementation of the Forest Biodiversity Programme METSO in Finland. Data were collected via nine focus group discussions involving a total of 59 forest conservation stakeholders. Through interpretative qualitative analysis, we found that forest owners' and forest advisers' awareness of the voluntary instrument and the smooth interplay of knowledge types are important factors in implementing voluntary conservation. Knowledge use should be locally bound for policy implementation to be effective. Social relationships enable integrating local knowledge. Forest owners, advisers, authorities and other actors interpret scientific and other knowledges (and simultaneously co-produce new knowledge) in practical action. We conclude that educating forest advisers, informing forest owners, and increasing collaboration can enhance evidence flows from research to practice.     

Property Taxes and Forests in West Virginia: A Historical Review

Managed Timberland Tax Incentive Program (Managed Timberland), the program which authorizes preferential property taxation of forest land in West Virginia, was created in anticipation of expected drastic changes in property assessment values when the state ordered a reassessment to correct a long-standing underassessment problem. Since the enactment of Managed Timberland no detailed research has been conducted to determine the benefits of the policy to the state or to private forest landowners. Managed Timberland has low enrollment rates and may be an unfair shift of the tax burden to non-forest owners. A detailed study of Managed Timberland was conducted to determine the effectiveness of the policy. This study employs a historical review to examine the implication of past tax policies and provide a context and direction for future research and policy recommendations. The historical review reveals that in West Virginia, a preferential tax program for forests is desirable, but requires changes due to a history of inefficient and unfairly distributed property taxes and inadequate benefits from Managed Timberland to forest landowners. Simplification of forest tax policies would make these policies more transparent and understandable to landowners and easier for local tax authorities to administer. In addition, landowners may be more inclined to participate in preferential forest tax programs if program outreach and reward systems were more in keeping with known landowner values and beliefs.     

Admixing broadleaved to coniferous tree species: a review on yield, ecological stability and economics

For several reasons the conversion of mono-species into mixed-species forests is presently a major concern of forest management and policy in Central Europe. Although it is possible to show a clear trend in favour of mixed-species forests, private forest owners and some forest economists have often not favoured mixed forests, assuming that they are less profitable. The trend towards mixed forests seems mainly for ecological reasons, while sound economic analysis of mixed forests is still rare. Based on this background the objective of the study is to answer the following four questions: (1) Does the yield of mixed-species forests differ from that of pure forests? (2) Does the mixing of tree species influence the ecological stability of forests? (3) Is the economic value of a mixed forest less than that of a monoculture? (4) How do forest economic models integrate the findings on yield and ecological stability of mixed forests? To answer these questions a literature review was conducted on the possible impacts of mixed-species forests. In comparison to pure stands a greater yield is not necessarily given in mixed stands. Yet, mixed-species stands are better able to compensate disturbances than monocultures. Moreover, there is substantial evidence that mixed-species stands are more resistant against biotic and abiotic disturbances. Applying an extended forest economic model, it was possible to demonstrate that mixing large blocks of native broadleaf species into pure conifer forests may lead to a significant reduction of financial risk. From a risk-averse perspective the economic value of a mixed-species forest may thus be greater than that of a mono-species forest. Yet, it became clear that forest economists do not often integrate the research findings on yield and ecological stability of mixed stands in modelling, but rather apply simple bioeconomic modelling. Moreover, in the context of mixed forests economists also largely ignore even classical financial approaches, which consider risk and risk preferences. We concluded that forest economics has to close substantial research gaps. Firstly, the knowledge of how to integrate biophysical properties of mixed forests in bioeconomic modelling is still an open question. Secondly, forest economists have to adopt the modern approaches of financial theory and management science to value mixed forests.     

Choosing What to Believe About Forests: Differences Between Professional and Non-Professional Evaluative Criteria

This study examined the process of information exchange between natural resource management professionals and forest owners to determine whether and how professionals could improve their ability to persuade forest owners to adopt recommended stewardship practices. Using the inductive ‘grounded theory’ method of qualitative research, 109 stakeholders throughout the State of Washington, USA were interviewed and asked to discuss their information sources and preferences. The study findings reveal that many natural resource management professionals may not correctly anticipate how forest owners evaluate new forest management information. Professionals in the study typically chose and evaluated new information on the basis of established standards of scientific credibility, including peer review or the professional reputation of the individuals and institutions conducting the research or publishing the information. Most professionals expected forest owners would do the same. Forest owners with non-professional backgrounds, however, were often unfamiliar with or unimpressed by such credentials, and often used a very different evaluative screen. Willingness to adopt information was greatly influenced by their social impressions of the individuals delivering it. When a professional pressed for an ‘expert to non-expert’ relationship or did not establish a mutually respectful interpersonal learning atmosphere, non-professional forest owners frequently resisted not only that individual, but also the information they provided. This paper links these findings to androgogy (adult learning theory), and demonstrates that the natural resource professionals most effective with forest owners are those providing what the established literature describes as classic elements of a good adult learning environment. These elements include empathy, mutual respect, non-hierarchical information exchange, praxis, emphasis on experiential rather than passive learning, and evidence that tangible results may be expected. An improved understanding of the fundamentals of the adult learning process can be expected to enhance the effectiveness of natural resource professionals in information exchange with forest owners.     

Carbon sink by the forest sector—options and needs for implementation

The important role of forests in the carbon cycle suggests that the management of forests might be used to offset emissions. Newly developing markets will support these socially desirable ends only if a new specified policy framework is formulated and the landowners develop individually tailored projects. From the point of view of the developing countries, carbon-sink policy needs to be integrated in an overall policy against deforestation and forest degradation. Managing the risk of climatic change is an underestimated challenge for all branches of forest science and might bring dramatic changes to all stakeholders in the forest sector. Most worrisome is the current state of the quality of global forest information. But further uneasy scientific questions about forest carbon sinks remain open.     

县级退耕还林工程管理信息系统的研制

县级退耕还林工程管理信息系统是基于MAPGIS6.6为二次开发平台研制开发的,按照国家退耕还林工程管理主要标准和规范性政策文件的要求,以县级退耕还林工程实施和管理的工作流程为基础,采用多层体系结构、组件式设计思想、流程化业务处理和层次化的开发方法,设计了工程计划、作业设计、证卡管理、检查验收、钱粮兑现、政策文件、查询统计、图形处理、数据交换、系统设置等十大主体功能模块。本管理信息系统具有流程化的模块设计、一体化的图表互动、格式化的证卡管理、自主化的查询统计、严格化的权限控制等特点,能有效提升和改善县级实施单位的工程管理水平,进而为国家对退耕还林工程的科学决策提供依据。     

Catalyst for innovation in European forest policy sciences. Evaluation of the EFI Research Program 3: policy analysis

The performance of program area 3 policy analysis has been evaluated during the decade since 1994. The program area has promoted and conducted 16 major projects covering a wide range of topics of forest policy and published seven working papers, three reviewed research reports and nine proceedings. The strength of the program area does not lie in conducting research by its own small resources, but in networking throughout Europe, the program area 3 became a catalyst for innovation in forest policy research done in co-operation with member research institutions. By networking, innovative topics have been promoted and the social science-based analysis of forest policy have been strengthened. Seminars with participants from all over Europe disseminated the scientific findings among researchers and stakeholders. Open networking was especially successful in integrating forest policy researchers from countries with economies in transition. Future challenges are research in European integration and comparative projects in forest policy. Furthermore, program area 3 could gather the European potential of researchers to foster the discipline forest policy science in the future.