林业经济学领域的拓展

当前的林业经济学模型,构建于木材永续利用体系和新古典经济学框架之上,存在着诸多局限性。森林可持续经营(sustainableforestmanagement,SFM)体系中的社会、经济和生态因素不同于木材永续利用。因此,SFM经济学将以多元均衡经济学和消费者偏好理论为基础。其中,消费者偏好理论考虑了个体的复杂性、环境的特殊性、偏好的动态性、需求的差异性以及需求的层次性等因素。鉴于SFM的内在要求,有必要拓展林业经济学领域。发展经济学、制度经济学、生态经济学以及经济学的其他新流派理论为该学科领域的拓展提供强有力的支持。     

Faustmann formula before Faustmann in German territorial states

A common perception in forest and natural resource economics is that the celebrated ‘Faustmann formula’ was discovered in 1849 and that the ‘Faustmann rule’ or Faustmann–Pressler solution to the optimal forest rotation age was derived from it a decade later by Max Robert Pressler. This paper shows that the modern perspective to the valuation of forests was presented in German territorial states much earlier than has previously been thought. In 1805 a competent forest mathematician Johann Hossfeld showed explicitly how forest value can be derived under both intermittent and sustained yield management, thus discovering the Faustmann formula. The study also shows that the close intellectual and professional connections among the first German ‘forest economists’ seem to have played a key role in the diffusion of modern forest economic principles from Hossfeld and his contemporaries to Faustmann and Pressler, and perhaps even more generally to modern capital theory.     

Admixing broadleaved to coniferous tree species: a review on yield, ecological stability and economics

For several reasons the conversion of mono-species into mixed-species forests is presently a major concern of forest management and policy in Central Europe. Although it is possible to show a clear trend in favour of mixed-species forests, private forest owners and some forest economists have often not favoured mixed forests, assuming that they are less profitable. The trend towards mixed forests seems mainly for ecological reasons, while sound economic analysis of mixed forests is still rare. Based on this background the objective of the study is to answer the following four questions: (1) Does the yield of mixed-species forests differ from that of pure forests? (2) Does the mixing of tree species influence the ecological stability of forests? (3) Is the economic value of a mixed forest less than that of a monoculture? (4) How do forest economic models integrate the findings on yield and ecological stability of mixed forests? To answer these questions a literature review was conducted on the possible impacts of mixed-species forests. In comparison to pure stands a greater yield is not necessarily given in mixed stands. Yet, mixed-species stands are better able to compensate disturbances than monocultures. Moreover, there is substantial evidence that mixed-species stands are more resistant against biotic and abiotic disturbances. Applying an extended forest economic model, it was possible to demonstrate that mixing large blocks of native broadleaf species into pure conifer forests may lead to a significant reduction of financial risk. From a risk-averse perspective the economic value of a mixed-species forest may thus be greater than that of a mono-species forest. Yet, it became clear that forest economists do not often integrate the research findings on yield and ecological stability of mixed stands in modelling, but rather apply simple bioeconomic modelling. Moreover, in the context of mixed forests economists also largely ignore even classical financial approaches, which consider risk and risk preferences. We concluded that forest economics has to close substantial research gaps. Firstly, the knowledge of how to integrate biophysical properties of mixed forests in bioeconomic modelling is still an open question. Secondly, forest economists have to adopt the modern approaches of financial theory and management science to value mixed forests.     

A criteria and indicator prognosis for sustainable forest management assessments: Concepts and optional policy baskets for the high forest zone in Ghana

ABSTRACT

This article establishes principles conveyed by criteria and indicators as a useful tool for measuring progress made toward sustainable forest management (SFM). Pedagogically, the conceptual construction raises questions on the following topics: (a) the various management practices and policies that exist in the high forest zone, (b) how criteria and indicators for assessments are selected, and (c) how progress made toward SFM is measured. Performance scores are established for indicators identified within the three sectors (forest ecosystems, forest communities, and the economy) for sustainability assessment. Measuring progress toward SFM operations are quantitatively performed with estimated maximum and minimum thresholds levels at which resource-use would be sustained using the Measure of Forest Resource-Use Sustainability Scale (MoFRUSS). The outcome of the measurement operations, as depicted by MoFRUSS, reveals the actual extent to which stakeholder’s initiatives toward sustainable forest management has progressed and in which direction it is moving. It also offers optional policy baskets for resource management interventions from which the socio-eco economic bundle is recommended if the forestry sector of Ghana’s Vision 2020 (sustainable development) is to be achieved with improved societal well-being, improved environmental health and vitality, and improved economic growth and development.     

辽西地区几种农林复合型水土保持林模式的研究

辽西地区属半干旱丘陵区 ,由于地势起伏 ,雨量集中 ,土壤粘重 ,植被稀疏 ,森林覆盖率低 ,成为我省水土流失比较严重地区。水土流失的结果是导致表土破坏 ,底土裸露 ,土壤理化性质明显恶化 ,土地生产力下降 ,增加了植被恢复的难度。为迅速改变辽西地区贫瘠落后的面貌 ,恢复生态系统平衡。建国以来 ,这一地区开展了大面积人工造林工作 ,据统计资料表明 ,以油松纯林为主的水保林面积达 5 3万ｈｍ2 ,这些林分对改善区域生态环境 ,推动国民经济及社会各项事业的发展起到了重要作用。但以大面积纯林为主的油松水土保持林存在树种单一、层次简单、…     

森林永续利用的原则不能动摇

地球人口负荷接近饱和条件下,一切可更新资源都必须实行永续利用,森林也不例外。中国印度等只有提高生产力,才可能实现森林永续利用。多数发展中国家的资源并不贫乏,为实现永续利用,必须解决一系列的科技、政治经济问题。发达国家高层次的森林永续利用,也仍把提高生产力放在核心地位。     

Implementing Sustainable Forest Management Using Six Concepts in an Adaptive Management Framework

Certification and principles, criteria and indicators (PCI) describe desired ends for sustainable forest management (SFM) but do not address potential means to achieve those ends. As a result, forest owners and managers participating in certification and employing PCI as tools to achieving SFM may be doing so inefficiently: achieving results by trial-and-error rather than by targeted management practices; dispersing resources away from priority objectives; and passively monitoring outcomes rather than actively establishing quantitative goals. In this literature review, we propose six concepts to guide SFM implementation. These concepts include: Best Management Practices (BMPs)/Reduced Impact Logging (RIL), biodiversity conservation, forest protection, multi-scale planning, participatory forestry, and sustained forest production. We place these concepts within an iterative decision-making framework of planning, implementation, and assessment, and provide brief definitions of and practices delimited by each concept. A case study describing SFM in the neo-tropics illustrates a potential application of our six concepts. Overall our paper offers an approach that will help forest owners and managers implement the ambiguous SFM concept.     

Policy analysis of a government-sanctioned management plan for a community-owned forest in Romania

Forest management in Romania is based on sustained yield. However, the current sustained-yield policy may be outdated and may not be the best way of achieving Romania's intended objectives of biological sustainability and community stability. The existing policy also does not incorporate objectives consistent with Romania's new economic and social systems. We examine the potential economic net benefits from timber harvests that could result from changes to the existing sustained-yield policy by comparing the state-approved management plan of a community forest with three alternative forest management plans. We find that the three alternatives appreciably increase the potential economic net benefits. Certain aspects of these alternative plans deviate from Romania's current sustained-yield criteria; however, the costs associated with changes to the current regime could be balanced by the economic net benefits of implementing an alternative management plan. To employ the same static forest management policy throughout time without adapting to a dynamic socio-economic environment will likely lead to inefficient, ineffective, and unproductive utilization of Romania's forest resources.     

A marginal cost analysis of trade-offs in old-growth preservation in Ontario

The paper examines the economic impacts of sustainable forest management (SFM) policies in Canada. Specifically, the marginal costs (MC) of old-growth preservation in an even-aged boreal forest in northeastern Ontario are examined under the condition that forest managers need to achieve multiple objectives for SFM. Furthermore, the trade-offs of old-growth preservation are estimated, allowing the levels of three specific SFM objectives to vary, namely, providing a consistent supply of timber in each period, meeting terminal volume targets at the end of the planning horizon, and maintaining a desired age structure of the forest. MCs are higher for harvesting regimes constrained by SFM objectives compared with that in which only profit maximization is considered. We observed that MCs for these three scenarios varied more when the area allotted for old-growth preservation is small. When the area of protected old-growth forest reaches about 66% of the maximum possible, the MCs are almost the same. All MCs are iso-elastic. The even-flow volume per period has the highest marginal cost among the three cases. If managers choose to provide terminal volume that is greater than or equal to the initial volume, instead of a lesser terminal volume, then old-growth forest can be preserved at no extra cost. The study emphasizes the need for integrated and simultaneous achievement of complementary goals of SFM for better economic return and minimization of the negative economic impact of SFM on the forestry sector.     

Forest governance and sustainability pathways in the absence of a comprehensive national forest policy — The case of New Zealand

A ‘pathways’ and ‘framings’ approach derived from Leach et al. (2010) is used to examine forest sustainability policy in New Zealand. The country has had no comprehensive forest policy since the 1990s and indeed no longer a forest service or its equivalent. Instead ‘forest’ preservation, policy, and monitoring functions are carried out by the Department of Conservation, Ministry of Primary Industry and Ministry of Environment. Exotic plantation forests have themselves been sold off to the private sector and some aspects of planting and harvesting are regulated by the Resource Management Act. Even in this Neo-Liberal setting, and similar to Leach et al.'s work in completely different contexts, policy responses have tended to be oriented towards ‘stability’ and ‘resilience’ types of forest sustainability. Three forest sustainability pathways are evident, directed towards preservation of indigenous biodiversity, economic development without adverse environmental impacts, and monitoring of environmental quality. In some ways the current ‘New Zealand forest governance model’ is an improvement on its predecessor but it seems unlikely to be mobile in a policy sense, resting as it does on the existence a relatively large area of indigenous forest and a large exotic plantation resource where the latter provides all timber needs.     

生态经济学视角下的森林自然资本分类与功能实现

森林是一种重要的自然资本, 应用生态经济学的自然资本理论分析森林的分类经营包括2层含义:一是森林的分类; 二是分类后的森林经营。对于森林的分类, 应用自然资本理论中的关键自然资本划分原理。关键自然资本的判定须根据重要程度和受到威胁程度2个基本标准, 其中对重要程度应从生态、社会文化和经济这3个维度加以考虑。对于分类后的森林经营, 应用自然资本理论中的功能实现与维持原理进行分析。森林自然资本的功能维持准则是森林可持续经营必须维持森林自然资本的服务功能不下降。在森林可持续经营实践中, 这一准则对森林中的关键自然资本及一般自然资本的具体要求是有区别的, 主要体现在对各种类型自然资本的功能实现度的要求上。     

Decision-making for the selection of a best wood extraction method: An analytic network process approach

The importance of environmental and economical aspects in sustainable forest management (SFM), demands a continuing need for the application of efficient methods in this field. In this paper, we applied analytic network process (ANP) with benefits, opportunities, costs, and risks (BOCR) to evaluate four existing wood extraction methods (rubber-tired skidder, tracked skidder, cable logging and animal skidding) and select the best one based on SFM strategies in the Caspian (Hyrcanian) Forest, in northern Iran. The required data were obtained either from the previous studies or through pairwise comparisons conducted by a panel of forest engineering experts. Based on the BOCR subnetworks and their corresponding criteria, four alternatives were synthesized. ANP analysis indicated that the benefits and risks were more important in terms of decision-making, compared to the opportunities and costs. Finally, the alternative of ‘rubber-tired skidder’ was selected as the most suitable method for meeting SFM strategies. The decision framework proposed in this study offers a means for the reorganizing and planning of timber harvesting operations as an integral step toward SFM. By making minor adjustments for local conditions, this decision framework can be adapted for many other regions and countries.     

我国伐区木材生产的“4R”理念

根据目前我国森林资源的现状,针对当前木材产业的发展趋势,在森林可持续经营理念下,分析伐区木材生产技术与管理模式应与循环经济下的＂4R＂原则相结合,在伐区木材生产的各个环节中渗透减量化、再利用、再循环、再生成的准则,用以提高森林蓄积量,以实现在充分发挥森林生态效益、社会效益的同时,最大限度的提高其经济效益。     

Democratising timber: An assessment of Myanmar's emerging ‘Forest Law Enforcement,Governance and Trade’ (FLEGT) process

Amidst Myanmar (Burma)'s political reform process the forest sector remains an important area awaiting democratisation. Forests historically covered over 50% of the countries' land area, and have been of major importance for both local livelihoods, the national economy and ‘ecosystem services’ such as biodiversity and catchment hydrology. The export timber trade has however played a decisive role in determining forest sector policy and indeed has exerted a significant influence on overall national politics since the colonial era began and continuing to the present day. Under the post-independence military dictatorship the timber trade involved ever more unsustainable plunder, particularly from the 1970s, rapidly degrading forests. But now reform of Myanmar's timber trade is on the national political agenda, reform which will be crucial for the Nation's transition towards an equitable and sustainable development trajectory.New legislative measures within consuming countries, including the EU, to challenge illegally sourced timber and wood product supplies have begun to exert a catalytic influence on Myanmar's forest policies, and converging with domestic civil society pressures have led in 2013 to the initiation of a formal ‘Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade’ (or FLEGT) bilateral process between the European Union and the Government of Myanmar.This paper presents an analysis of the nature of Myanmar's current timber trade and of the challenges and opportunities for reform, particularly in relation to the emerging FLEGT process. We argue that there are eight key aspects of Myanmar's timber trade overdue for democratic reform, which the FLEGT process puts into sharp relief: 1) resolution of ethnic conflicts primarily in upland forested areas, 2) reform of forest tenures; 3) a review of overall forest sector policies and the appropriate place of timber production; 4) reform of military era state timber institutions, 5) a return to silviculturally based sustainable forest management; 6) restructuring of the timber industry away from ‘crony’ domination; 7) measures to combat illegal logging and assure the rule of law; and 8) citizen participation in policy development and implementation.This ‘shopping list’ of democratic reforms implies a major and undoubtedly difficult process ahead, and success is far from certain. From 2013 promising initial progress has already begun on several of these areas. However, although the Government of Myanmar may give the international audience the impression that it is rapidly democratising, on the ground only limited substantive changes are yet experienced in rural areas, and resistance to reform persists amongst the military and their commercial partners. A spectrum of possible outcomes for forest sector reform may be foreseen, from mere token improvements on the dictatorship-era ‘business as usual’ to a thorough realisation of democratic aspirations. The outcome will be determined by the balance of power between civil society, public representatives, timber merchants particularly the powerful so-called ‘crony’ and proxy military business interests, and the intermediating powers of Government (including a significant rent-seeking ‘shadow state’), the EU, and the international markets that drive the demand for Burmese timber. The extent to which the FLEGT process can reinforce the wider democratisation process may be a decisive factor.     

Financial viability of natural forest management in Bolivia: environmental regulation and the dissipation and distribution of profits

Following recent changes in the Bolivian Forest Law, there has been considerable debate about the financial viability of natural forest management in Northern Bolivia. We compare the returns to timber extraction for a number of forest management regimes, finding that the cost for private parties of meeting the recently imposed sustainable forest management requirements is significant. While still profitable (i.e. earning positive rates of return), sustainable forest management is clearly less profitable than traditional logging practices. Indeed, the net present value per hectare is depressed to such low levels that forests are unlikely to earn competitive rates of return, so that future conversion or misuse of forestlands may be feared. Finally, implications of the new forest law for the distribution of the resource rent between firm and government are discussed. Our results indicate that historic patterns of incomplete rent capture by the government have effectively been reversed, and that many firms will not be able to earn ‘normal profits’ under the new regime.     

Assessing forest sustainability trajectory with temporal changes in timber output and ecological reserve: the case of China

We classified forest resources into four modes: high timber output and high ecological reserve (Mode T-E); high timber output and low ecological reserve (Mode T-e); low timber output and low ecological reserve (Mode t-e); and low timber output and high ecological reserve (Mode t-E). Ecological reserve is stand volume per unit area of natural forests and total area of natural forests; timber output is defined as total area of timber forests and unit area of timber production. We used this classification system to examine forest development in China between 1950 and 2013. Data were acquired mainly from forest inventory statistics published by China’s Forestry Administration between the 1970s and 2013. I Information from the 1950s was acquired from relevant literature. Our analysis suggests that China’s forest resources transitioned from Mode t-E to Mode T-e during the period between the early 1950s and late 1970s, resulting in the destruction of both ecological vigor and timber resources. During the following 20 years, strategies were implemented to improve the ecological reserve and increase timber supply, resulting in a decline in the rate of forest degradation. Over the past decade, China’s forest resources have reached Mode T-E as a result of improvements in both the ecological reserve and the timber supply. Currently, the total area of timber forests is relatively low, representing the limiting factor for improvement in overall forest functionality. Nevertheless, along with increased efforts to protect natural forests and develop fast-growing forest plantations, it is hopeful that China’s forest resources will achieve a sustainable state. The four-mode TOER (timber output, ecological reserve) method introduced in this paper is a simple but an effective approach for characterizing the overall quality and quantity of forest resources. The data used for this type of evaluation are typically easy to obtain and reliable. This methodology has potential to be applied to forests in various regions and countries.     

Pricing ecosystem resilience in frequent-fire ponderosa pine forests

Dry forests across the United States have become subject to declining resilience and, consequently, increased vulnerability to catastrophic wildfires. These disturbances cause severe environmental and social damages and may dislodge the forest into a different ecological regime. Forests provide many valuable services, such as the provisioning of timber and the sequestering of carbon that would otherwise contribute to climate change. The high-severity conflagrations that have become regular occurrences in many dry forests impinge the delivery of such benefits, particularly in the event of a regime shift. Sustainable forest management should take these risks into account. This article analyzes the economics of resilience in dry forests with respect to catastrophic fires and ecological thresholds. We illustrate how to price ecosystem resilience for the fire-prone ponderosa pine forests of the western United States. This analysis demonstrates that pricing forest resilience also establishes the economic value of ecological restoration with respect to ecosystem services, thereby operationalizing forest management as an investment in natural capital.     

Forests as Capital: Financial Mechanisms for Tropical Forest Conservation

Tropical forest loss and degradation due to human activities have been persistent and intractable global problems. Model estimates suggest that current levels of finance for conservation and sustainable forest management (SFM) are insufficient and may need to increase by an order of magnitude in order to meet this challenge. This special issue presents select articles from the 2014 Yale International Society of Tropical Foresters (ISTF) Annual Conference, which explored diverse finance mechanisms such as REDD+, sustainability certification, ecological compensation, community forestry, and official development assistance. Each finance mechanism has advantages and disadvantages, which render them effective under specific circumstances. Comprehensive tropical forest conservation will require a diverse portfolio of finance strategies appropriate for local institutional and ecological conditions. Hybrid strategies combining elements of multiple schemes could bolster conservation and SFM efforts by leveraging their respective strengths. Clear and realistic targets and baselines, robust monitoring and measurement-reporting-verification, strong governance and institutions, and periodic evaluation can contribute to the successful application of forest conservation finance. Due to the potentially high damages, especially to the world’s poorest communities from continuing current deforestation trends, substantially greater financing of tropical conservation and SFM is a sound global investment.     

森林可持续经营背景下的森林经营管理原则

根据我国森林经营管理原则的历史和现状,明确了可持续发展背景下森林可持续经营是森林经营管理的总目标,指出森林经营管理原则应当既明确具体,有一定的可操作性,又不是具体的标准和指标而不失原则性,是为实现总体目标而进行规划和决策必须遵循的基本约束条件.阐述了实现森林可持续经营的基本要求和现实森林可持续性下降的表现.在此基础上,应用可持续发展理论和森林等级结构原理,提出了森林经营管理应遵循的6项基本原则:系统整体性原则、生态可持续性原则、公益性和社会参与原则、可持续利用原则、经济合理性原则和谨慎性原则.     

澳大利亚林区道路发展及启示

澳大利亚森林资源丰富,林区道路建设历史悠久,密集而发达的林区道路及其现有林道改进方案保证了澳大利亚森林道路的良性有序发展,保障了森林和木材资源的可持续、综合和有效利用.文中概述了澳大利亚林区道路发展现状,包括林区道路“用者自付”原则下的多元化投融资机制,以及林区道路的管理体制和机制、建设规划及建设规范等;分析了中国林业...