Two-dimensional solar radiation interception model for hedgerow fruit trees

A two-dimensional, hourly or daily time step model was developed, which takes canopy characteristics and row orientation into account to simulate solar radiation interception in hedgerow orchards. In order to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of soil irradiance across the tree row, the canopy path length through which the radiation must travel to reach a certain point on the soil surface is calculated. The model assumes leaves to be uniformly distributed within an ellipsoid, and radiation penetrating the canopy is attenuated according to Beer’s law. Beam or direct radiation and diffuse radiation for the PAR (photosynthetically active radiation) and NIR (near-infrared radiation) wavebands are calculated separately, as they interact differently with the canopy. The attenuation of beam radiation by the canopy is strongly dependent on canopy dimensions and architecture, zenith and azimuth angle, as well as row orientation. Radiation can penetrate neighbouring rows, so two rows on either side of the simulated row are considered. Validation of the model was carried out for a wide range of conditions (crops, row orientation, canopy density, tree size and shape). Field measurements included solar radiation, soil irradiance at different distances from the tree row with tube solarimeters, leaf area density, as well as canopy size and row orientation. Model predictions of soil irradiance were excellent in orchards with symmetrical and elliptical canopies having a uniform leaf distribution. In orchards where the canopy was non-symmetric and/or had non-uniform leaf distribution, errors in predictions of solar radiation transmittance occurred. As a result of these discrepancies, the overall MAE was 40% of the average measured value of radiant transmittance over the whole day.     

The distribution of leaf area,radiation, photosynthesis and transpiration in a Shamouti orange hedgerow orchard. Part II. Photosynthesis,transpiration, and the effect of row shape and direction

The influence of the distribution of radiation in an orange canopy on transpiration and photosynthesis was examined by developing a model of these processes.The leaf energy balance, microclimate relationships and climatic data are combined with radiation, leaf conductance, and leaf carbon uptake models to simulate orchard photosynthesis and transpiration over 2 days. Calculated hourly values of transpiration showed good agreement with measured values of sap flow in the orange orchard.Calculated carbon uptake during the six summer months was 22 kg CO₂ per tree; however, experimental estimates of annual dry matter production yield 55 kg CO₂ per tree. The calculated figure is therefore considerably in error and indicates that present information used in carbon balance modeling of Citrus is inadequate. Even so, it is shown that radiation levels deep in the canopy, where a significant amount of leaf area and transpiration is located, are too low for significant carbon uptake to occur.As an example of the usefulness of the model, the distributions of photosynthesis, transpiration and photosynthetic radiation were simulated in hedgerow canopies of three different shapes following current pruning practices in Israel. The distribution of foliage inside the given hedgerow cross-section was calculated based on the relationship of average measured foliage density to calculated diffuse photosynthetic irradiance in the canopy. The simulation was run for rows oriented north-south and east-west and for climatic conditions of midsummer. The results of the simulation indicated that: (a) The highest photosynthesis in citrus orchards is obtained by covering the largest ground areas possible with a thick canopy, i.e., maximum leaf area index (LAI). Under such conditions most photosynthesis occurs in the upper 1 m of the canopy. (b) Although rows with slanted walls do not have the highest photosynthesis, they allow more light penetration into the canopy and have productive regions on the periphery of the canopy at all heights within the orchard. (c) Whereas row orientation has little influence on total photosynthesis of the orchard, a N-S orientation allows more light penetration into rows with slanted walls and/or wide inter-row alleys, thus reducing spatial variation in the computed photosynthesis. (d) Water use of vertically pruned citrus orchards can be decreased significantly without seriously affecting photosynthesis by reducing canopy height to as low as 3 m.     

Ultraviolet-B radiation in a row-crop canopy: an extended 1-D model

A decrease in stratospheric ozone may result in a serious threat to plants, since biologically active short-wavelength ultraviolet-B (UV-B 280–320 nm) radiation will increase even with a relatively small decrease in ozone. Numerous investigations have demonstrated that the effect of UV-B enhancements on plants includes reduction in grain yield, alteration in species competition, susceptibility to disease, and changes in plant structure and pigmentation. To determine the physiological effects on plants of any increases in UV-B radiation, the irradiances at the potential sensitive plant surface need to be known. A number of radiative transfer models exist but because of the importance of sky diffuse radiation to the global UV-B irradiance, models designed to estimate photosynthetically active radiation or total solar radiation may not accurately model the UV-B. This paper compares spatially and temporally averaged measurements of the UV-B canopy transmittance of a relatively dense maize canopy (sky view: 0.27°) to the estimations of two one-dimensional models differing mainly in the handling of sky radiance. The model that considered the distribution of sky radiance tended to underestimate the canopy transmittance, the model that assumed an isotropic sky radiance distribution tended to overestimate the canopy transmittance. However, the assumption concerning the sky radiance distribution accounted for only about 0.01 of the model error. Consequently, the sky radiance distribution is probably not important in modeling such dense crop canopies. The model that overestimated transmittance and had the generally larger errors, a modified Meyers model, used the assumption of uniform leaf angle distribution, whereas in the other model, designated the UVRT model, leaf angle distributions were estimated by sample measurements. Generally this model would be satisfactory in describing the statistically average UV-B irradiance conditions in the canopy. This model may also be applied to other dense plant canopies including forests.     

利用3D模型模拟天空与叶面散射对玉米冠层截光率的影响

该文利用并行蒙特卡罗光线跟踪模型定量分析了天空散射与叶片散射对玉米冠层截光率的影响.模拟试验表明:相同辐射强度时,冠层截获的光强与受剑照射的叶片在天空散射时都比直接辐射时多;当太阳高度角小于60°时,冠层在阴大截获的总光强小于晴大,但至少60%的叶片在阴大截获的光强大于晴大时截获的光强;叶片散射对冠层光分布的影响与波长...     

基于夏玉米冠层内辐射分布的不同层叶面积指数模拟

为了模拟夏玉米冠层内各层叶面积指数垂直分布,光合有效辐射（photosynthetically active radiation, PAR）是研究作物群体光合作用和长势的重要特征参数,阐明冠层内PAR的垂直分布规律与冠层结构等参数之间的相关关系,可为遥感定量反演冠层结构参数提供模型基础。该文基于PAR在冠层内的辐射传输规律结合冠层结构模拟不同太阳高度角的PAR透过率垂直分布模型,并用地面冠层分析仪测量值进行验证,结果表明模型对封垄前玉米抽雄期冠层内PAR透过率垂直分布模拟精度较高。通过不同太阳高度角PAR透过率的垂直分布模型结合消光系数运用不同算法分别反演层叶面积指数（leaf area index, LAI）,并与不同高度层LAI实测值进行比较。结果显示：Bonhomme& Chartier算法反演不同高度层LAI精度较高,上层均方根误差（root mean square error,RMSE）为0.18,中层RMSE为0.55,下层RMSE为0.09。不同太阳高度角反演结果存在差异,30°和45°高度角均能较好地反演下层LAI,RMSE分别为0.11与0.09;30°高度角反演中层LAI精度较高,RMSE为0.30;45°高度角反演上层LAI精度较高,RMSE为0.18。结果表明基于不同太阳高度角构建的层LAI反演模型更适于实现夏玉米不同高度层LAI的遥感估算。该研究可为模拟垄行结构冠层内LAI垂直分布提供参考。     

Extinction coefficients for radiation in plant canopies calculated using an ellipsoidal inclination angle distribution

Equations used to calculate extinction coefficients for radiation in plant canopies tend either to be too simple to describe canopy radiation accurately, or too complex for convenient computation. An equation has been derived using the assumption that the angular distribution of leaf area in a canopy is similar to the distribution of area on the surface of a prolate or oblate spheroid. This is therefore a generalization of the spherical leaf angle distribution which is frequently used for plant canopies. Simulated leaf angle distributions generated using this model closely approximate measured leaf angle distributions for plant canopies. Extinction coefficients calculated from the model give values which are virtually identical to those calculated using six leaf angle classes.     

水稻多组分双向反射模型的建立

在作物多组分双向反射模型的基础上，基于辐射传输原理和水稻群丛结构特征，特别是考虑水稻不同生长时期的特点，建立了水稻的多组分双向反射模型。模拟与实测结果的比较表明：模型基本上能反映水稻多组分反射光谱的角度分布特征，特别是较准确地模拟水稻不同生长期，不同太阳天顶角下，“热点”的右移和乳熟期前向反射中的反射高峰点。分蘖期和抽穗期，水稻冠层“热点”效应在水稻各组分的平均倾角约37°左右时达到最大，然后随平均倾角的增大，“热点”效应明显减弱。从数学的角度，模型计算值与实测值通过了t-检验，证明模拟值是可接受的。     

风送喷雾雾滴冠层穿透模型构建及应用

研究雾滴在树冠内的分布规律,对优化喷雾参数,提高喷雾效果有重要意义。该文以叶密度、出口风速和取样深度为试验变量,用试验法研究了树冠内雾滴穿透比例分布规律;试验结果表明:雾滴穿透比例随叶密度、取样深度的增加而减小,随喷雾机出口风速的增大而增大,其中取样深度对穿透比例影响最为显著。在此基础上,结合试验数据与统计学方法,构建了雾滴穿透比例二次指数数学模型,并确定了模型的待定系数,其模型精度R2高于0.95,经检验模型有一定的合理性和可靠性。基于此模型,计算了雾滴冠后飘移率,与实测值相比,平均相对误差为16.73%。进一步对雾滴冠后飘移率影响因素、双面喷雾机理、喷雾参数优化进行了分析,拓展了模型应用,对模型局限性和进一步优化模型的后续研究设想展开了说明。研究对风送喷雾雾滴分布规律研究具有一定的参考价值。     

Evaluation of a radiosity based light model for greenhouse cucumber canopies

Light distribution is a key factor of developmental and growth processes, and strongly depends on the foliage distribution which is affected, e.g., by the arrangement of the plants in the canopy. The precise simulation of the light distribution on organ level is an essential component for dynamical plant models which incorporate structural and physiological adaptions of plants to their environment. Combinations of static 3D plant models with 3D light models are used for analyzing the complex light distribution on leaf level in silico, but detailed measurements for evaluation of simulation results are almost non-existent. This study addressed the evaluation of a model on a high level of detail using individual leaf based light measurements in canopies of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). We combined a static 3D plant model derived from digitized plants on an individual organ scale with a mock-up of the surrounding canopy and a 3D radiosity based light distribution model. Variations of plant density and spacing were analyzed to cover a range of canopy architectures. An exclusion of components of the light environment by applying a shading encasement followed by a successive uncovering allowed investigating the scene under increasing levels of complexity. The combined 3D plant-light distribution approach allowed determining the interaction of the light directions and the canopy architecture as well as differences in the accuracy of the simulations. Depending on canopy architecture and shading treatment, the light distributions covered a range from exponentially shaped vertical gradients in encased treatments to nearly flat light profiles in nonencased conditions. In conclusion, simulations of leaf level PAR based on combinations of detailed 3D surfaced-based plant and light distribution models are suitable to derive light-induced physiological responses on organ level.     

The bare bones of leaf-angle distribution in radiation models for canopy photosynthesis and energy exchange

The effects of leaf-angle distribution in radiation models for canopy photosynthesis and energy exchange can be accurately described by using as few as three leaf-angle classes (0–30°, 30–60° and 60–90°). On this basis, simple equations have been developed and tested for reflectance, extinction and distribution of radiation in leaf canopies. In these equations the spherical leaf-angle distribution, default in most models, serves as a point of reference.     

Foliage area and architecture of plant canopies from sunfleck size distributions

A Poisson model is developed to describe sunfleck or gap size distributions beneath clumped plant canopies. This model is based on the assumption that foliage clumps are randomly distributed in space and foliage elements are randomly distributed within each clump. Using this model, the foliage clumping index, leaf area index (L), clump area index, element area index in each clump, and element and clump widths were successfully derived for two artificial canopies and a thinned and pruned Douglas-fir forest stand. It is shown that existing theories for deriving L from measurements of canopy gap fraction have limitations, and the use of canopy architectural information derived from canopy gap size distribution can substantially improve the technique for indirectly measuring L of plant canopies.     

Review of methods for in situ leaf area index (LAI) determination: Part II. Estimation of LAI,errors and sampling

The theoretical background of modeling the gap fraction and the leaf inclination distribution is presented and the different techniques used to derive leaf area index (LAI) and leaf inclination angle from gap fraction measurements are reviewed. Their associated assumptions and limitations are discussed, i.e., the clumping effect and the distinction between green and non-green elements within the canopy. Based on LAI measurements in various canopies (various crops and forests), sampling strategy is also discussed.     

The computation of foliage clumping index using hemispherical photography

Hemispherical photography (HP) is extensively used for both canopy architecture such as leaf area index (LAI), and solar radiation regime determinations under forest canopies. This is done mainly by assuming that foliage elements occur in a spatially random manner. However, the majority of world forests occur in heterogeneous ecosystems and topography with rather complex canopy architecture. To improve the estimates of canopy structures and solar radiation regimes, a non-random spatial distribution parameter called clumping index (CI) has been used. We compared varying methodologies of CI determination on real HP acquired in contrasting forest types growing on sloping ground, and on simulated HP representing different aggregation levels of foliage elements. The major aim was the comparative analysis of the effects of forest types, forest density, slope and gap fraction acquisition accuracy on estimation of CI using the five different approaches. The result indicated that CI estimates based on gap size distribution approaches performed the best and were less affected by topography and forest density compared to approaches based on solely logarithmic gap averaging techniques.     

双源蒸散发模型估算潜在蒸散发量的对比

潜在蒸散发取决于气候条件与下垫面植被覆盖状况,是农田及流域水循环研究的重要内容。该文针对现有的3种估算潜在蒸散发的双源模型(层状模型、块状模型、混合型模型),设定不同的下垫面植被覆盖状况,较为详细地比较了3种模型在不同植被覆盖条件下的潜在蒸散发估算能力,并对其区分土壤表面潜在蒸发与植被冠层潜在蒸腾的合理性进行了评价。结果表明,混合双源模型较层状模型和块状模型具有更好的模拟效果,能够适用于更广的下垫面植被覆盖状况。     

Effect of soil temperature on evapotranspiration by C3 and C4 grasses

The relationship between evapotranspiration (ET) and soil temperature was studied for two C3 and two C4 grasses grown in 20-cm diameter plastic containers and managed to provide 10-cm high dense leaf canopies. Soil temperature treatments were 13, 21, and 29°C while leaf canopies were exposed to ambient climate conditions. Except for one C3 grass at the highest soil temperature, all grasses had higher ET as soil temperature increased. The C4 grasses averaged 30% lower ET than the C3 grasses at 13°C soil temperature, but the relative difference decreased to only 10% lower than the nonstressed C3 grass at 29°C soil temperature. Canopy temperature showed no statistical relation to soil temperature. Soil heat flux differences appeared to have a greater influence on ET than plant resistance changes due to the influence of soil temperature on roots.     

菲涅尔高倍聚光PV/T系统热电输出性能模拟与试验

该文基于直通式微通道冷却的菲涅尔高倍聚光PV/T系统热电输出性能的仿真和试验进行研究,结果表明,太阳辐照度、聚光元件间的装配距离、入射角及热对流等对系统热电性能的影响较大;太阳直接辐照度为226 W/m2时,菲涅尔透镜与聚光元件间距离增大2 mm后,功率和电效率分别下降0.98 W和7.4%,对于确定的菲涅尔高倍聚光PV/T系统,存在最佳聚光元件装配参数范围;当太阳直接辐照度一定时,冷却工质流量越大,电池表面温度下降越快,但在较高流量时,随着流量持续增大,电池表面温度下降趋势减小;当入射角由0°增大至1°后,系统得热量下降0.25 MJ,在太阳辐照度达到500 W/m2时,输出功率下降6.35 W;试验系统输出性能稳定,且适用于大型系统,该文研究为系统实际运行参数调控提供理论和试验依据。     

Photosynthesis of a scots pine shoot: simulation of the irradiance distribution and photosynthesis of a shoot in different radiation fields

Using a model of shoot geometry the distribution of irradiance at the needle surface area of a shoot in different radiation conditions is simulated and shoot photosynthesis calculated. It is shown that the distribution of irradiance is very sensitive to radiation field geometry, affecting the efficiency of the utilization of radiant energy in photosynthesis. As a result, the photosynthetic response of a shoot in natural conditions is, for instance, highly dependent on the proportions of direct and diffuse solar radiation, being higher the greater is the proportion of diffuse radiation.     

水稻微分光谱和植被指数的作用探讨

通过两年两个不同品种水稻在不同供氮水平下的田间试验，测定了水稻冠层在生长过程中不同时期的高光谱反射率及对应的叶绿素、类胡萝卜素含量，分析了微分光谱对消除水稻冠层光谱的背景影响和植被指数在农学参数测定中的作用。结果表明：由微分光谱所得的红边位置、红边斜率与盖度和供氮水平之间有一定的相关性，与叶面积指数、地上生物量及冠层叶绿素、类胡萝卜素含量有显著相关；水稻多光谱植被指数RVI、NDVI与叶面积指数LAI及其地上部生物量之间有极显著相关性；高光谱植被指数及其变量与植被盖度、供氮水平、叶面积指数、地上生物量及叶绿素、类胡萝卜素含量之间存在相关性。这表明，用微分光谱技术与植被指数方法来监测水稻的色素含量和长势应该是可行的。     

太阳辐射减弱对冬小麦叶片光合作用膜脂过氧化及同化物累积的影响

为了探究气溶胶的太阳辐射减弱效应对农作物叶片生理特性及同化物累积的影响,以扬麦13为供试材料,在大田试验条件下系统研究了不同辐射减弱处理（100%、60%、40%、20%、15%）对冬小麦叶片光合作用、膜脂过氧化水平和同化物积累的影响。结果表明：太阳辐射减弱至自然光的60%-15%时,冬小麦叶片净光合速率减少15.8%-70.1%,光合色素的含量（叶绿素a、b和类胡萝卜素）显著提高,其中叶绿素b含量的增加最明显。太阳辐射减弱会抑制冬小麦叶片膜脂过氧化程度,减少细胞膜透性,且辐射减弱的程度越高,影响越大。当太阳辐射为自然光的60%-15%时,冬小麦叶片的可溶性糖含量比对照降低了32.22%-76.45%,可溶性蛋白含量降低了19.02%-48.12%,但总游离氨基酸含量比对照增加了47.46%-177.87%。上述结果表明,太阳辐射减弱后会减弱冬小麦光合作用,增加光合色素含量,抑制膜脂过氧化程度,从而导致作物体内同化物的累积受阻,糖类及蛋白质的含量显著降低,必然会影响作物的产量及品质形成。