Methane turnover and temperature response of methane-oxidizing bacteria in permafrost-affected soils of northeast Siberia

The abundance, activity, and temperature response of aerobic methane-oxidizing bacteria were studied in permafrost-affected tundra soils of northeast Siberia. The soils were characterized by both a high accumulation of organic matter at the surface and high methane concentrations in the water-saturated soils. The methane oxidation rates of up to 835 nmol CH₄ h⁻¹ g⁻¹ in the surface soils were similar to the highest values reported so far for natural wetland soils worldwide. The temperature response of methane oxidation was measured during short incubations and revealed maximum rates between 22 °C and 28 °C. The active methanotrophic community was characterized by its phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) concentrations and with stable isotope probing (SIP). Concentrations of 16:1ω8 and 18:1ω8 PLFAs, specific to methanotrophic bacteria, correlated significantly with the potential methane oxidation rates. In all soils, distinct 16:1 PLFAs were dominant, indicating a predominance of type I methanotrophs. However, long-term incubation of soil samples at 0 °C and 22 °C demonstrated a shift in the composition of the active community with rising temperatures. At 0 °C, only the concentrations of 16:1 PLFAs increased and those of 18:1 PLFAs decreased, whereas the opposite was true at 22 °C. Similarly, SIP with ¹³CH₄ showed a temperature-dependent pattern. When the soils were incubated at 0 °C, most of the incorporated label (83%) was found in 16:1 PLFAs and only 2% in 18:1 PLFAs. In soils incubated at 22 °C, almost equal amounts of ¹³C label were incorporated into 16:1 PLFAs and 18:1 PLFAs (33% and 36%, respectively). We concluded that the highly active methane-oxidizing community in cold permafrost-affected soils was dominated by type I methanotrophs under in situ conditions. However, rising temperatures, as predicted for the future, seem to increase the importance of type II methanotrophs, which may affect methane cycling in northern wetlands.     

Contribution of dissolved organic matter to carbon storage in forest mineral soils

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is often considered the most labile portion of organic matter in soil and to be negligible with respect to the accumulation of soil C. In this short review, we present recent evidence that this view is invalid. The stability of DOM from forest floor horizons, peats, and topsoils against microbial degradation increases with advanced decomposition of the parent organic matter (OM). Aromatic compounds, deriving from lignin, likely are the most stable components of DOM while plant‐derived carbohydrates seem easily degradable. Carbohydrates and N‐rich compounds of microbial origin produced during the degradation of DOM can be relatively stable. Such components contribute much to DOM in the mineral subsoil. Sorption of DOM to soil minerals and (co‐)precipitation with Al (and probably also with Fe), especially of the inherently stable aromatic moieties, result in distinct stabilization. In laboratory incubation experiments, the mean residence time of DOM from the Oa horizon of a Haplic Podzol increased from <30 y in solution to >90 y after sorption to a subsoil. We combined DOM fluxes and mineralization rate constants for DOM sorbed to minerals and a subsoil horizon, and (co‐)precipitated with Al to estimate the potential contribution of DOM to total C in the mineral soil of a Haplic Podzol in Germany. The contribution of roots to DOM was not considered because of lack of data. The DOM‐derived soil C ranges from 20 to 55 Mg ha^–1 in the mineral soil, which represents 19%–50% of the total soil C. The variation of the estimate reflects the variation in mineralization rate constants obtained for sorbed and (co‐)precipitated DOM. Nevertheless, the estimates indicate that DOM contributes significantly to the accumulation of stable OM in soil. A more precise estimation of DOM‐derived C in soils requires mineralization rate constants for DOM sorbed to all relevant minerals or (co‐)precipitated with Fe. Additionally, we need information on the contribution of sorption to distinct minerals as well as of (co‐)precipitation with Al and Fe to DOM retention.     

较贫瘠的红壤中有机质的积累及其生态意义

Field experiments on the decomposition of organic materials and the accumulation of organic carbon in infertile red soils were conducted at the Ecological Experimental Station of Red Soil, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the potential of CO₂ sequestration by reclamation and improving the fertility of these soils was estimated. Results showed that in infertile red soils, the humification coefficients of organic materials were rather high, ranging from 0.28 to 0.63 with an average of 0.43, which was 41% higher than those in corresponding red soils with medium fertility. This was mainly attributed to the high clay content, high acidity and low native organic matter content of infertile red soils. Compared to those in corresponding normal red soils, the decomposition rates of organic materials were significantly lower in infertile red soils in the first 2 years, thereafter no significant difference was observed between those in the two kinds of soils. Depending on the kind and amount of organic manure applied, the soil properties and the rotation systems, annual application of organic manure with a rate of 4 500 to 9 000 kg ha^-1 increased the organic carbon content in surface 20 cm of infertile red soils by 2.1~7.5 g kg^-1 with an average of 4.7 g kg^-1 within the first 5 years. The organic carbon content in infertile red soils which received organic manure annually increased linearly in the first 10 years, thereafter it slowed down, implying that the fertility of the infertile red soils could reach middle or high level in 10 years if the soil was managed properly. It was estimated that through exploitation of wastelands, re-establishment of fuel forests and improvement of soil fertility, soils in red soil region of China could sequester an extra 1.50 × 10¹⁵ g of atmospheric CO₂.     

Electrical resistance profiles of permafrost-affected soils in the north of Western Siberia according to their vertical electrical sounding

Vertical electrical sounding (VES) of soils and underlying permafrost was performed on key plots in the north of Western Siberia (the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug). It was supposed that the values of apparent electrical resistivity should sharply change at the boundary between the active layer and permafrost. Gleyzems, peat gleyzems, podzols, and petrozems studied on the key plots within the Yamal and Gydan peninsulas were characterized by different depths of the active layer. It was found that the electrical resistivity in the permafrost is one to two orders of magnitude higher than that in the active layer of the soils of different textures. Our study suggests that the VES method can be used to diagnose permafrost without disturbance of the soil cover. This conclusion is of special interest for long-term permafrost monitoring programs on permanent key plots. In general, the data obtained by VES are in agreement with the results of determination of the active layer thickness by traditional field methods.     

The intensity of organic matter decomposition in gray soils of forest ecosystems in the southern taiga of Central Siberia

The estimates of the carbon pool in the organic matter of gray soils of the southern taiga, the intensity of destruction of its components, and participation of the latter in the formation of the mineralized carbon flux to the atmosphere are presented for different stages of succession of deciduous (birch) and coniferous (fir) forests. The carbon pool varies from 139.7 to 292.7 t/ha. It is distributed between phytodetritus, mobile and stabile humus (32, 19, and 49%, respectively). The intensity of the mineralization carbon flux to the atmosphere amounts to 3.93–4.13 t C per year. Phytodetritus plays the main role in the formation of this flux. In the soils under the forests studied, 4–6% of the carbon flux are formed owing to mineralization of the newly formed soil humus. In birch forests, 2–6% (0.1–0.2% of the humus pool in the 0–20-cm layer) is the contribution to the flux due to mineralization of soil humus. In fir forests, the mineralized humus is compensated by humus substances synthesized in the process of humification during phytodetritus decomposition.     

Extraction of water‐soluble organic matter from mineral horizons of forest soils

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is involved in many important biogeochemical processes in soil. As its collection is laborious, very often water‐soluble organic matter (WSOM) obtained by extracting organic or mineral soil horizons with a dilute salt solution has been used as a substitute of DOM. We extracted WSOM (measured as water‐soluble organic C, WSOC) from seven mineral horizons of three forest soils from North‐Rhine Westphalia, Germany, with demineralized H₂O, 0.01 M CaCl₂, and 0.5 M K₂SO₄. We investigated the quantitative and qualitative effects of the extractants on WSOM and compared it with DOM collected with ceramic suction cups from the same horizons. The amounts of WSOC extracted differed significantly between both the extractants and the horizons. With two exceptions, K₂SO₄ extracted the largest amounts of WSOC (up to 126 mg C kg^–1) followed by H₂O followed by CaCl₂. The H₂O extracts revealed by far the highest molar UV absorptivities at 254 nm (up to 5834 L mol^–1 cm^–1) compared to the salt solutions which is attributed to solubilization of highly aromatic compounds. The amounts of WSOC extracted did not depend on the amounts of Fe and Al oxides as well as on soil organic C and pH. Water‐soluble organic matter extracted by K₂SO₄ bore the largest similarity to DOM due to relatively analogue molar absorptivities. Therefore, we recommend to use this extractant when trying to obtain a substitute for DOM, but as WSOM extraction is a rate‐limited process, the suitability of extraction procedures to obtain a surrogate of DOM remains ambiguous.     

Humic acids in meadow-chernozemic permafrost-affected soils of the Transbaikal Region

The composition and properties of humic acids in permafrost-affected meadow-chernozemic soils of the Transbaikal Region have been studied. The contents of carbon, nitrogen, and acid functional groups in the humic acids of the studied soils formed under the impact of cryogenic factors are relatively low. Thus, both the condensed nuclear part and the aliphatic chains are well pronounced in the humic acids of the studied soils. At the same time, the degree of their aromaticity is lower in comparison with humic acids in the analogous soils of Western Siberia and Kazakhstan.     

Postagrogenic transformation of organic matter in soddy-podzolic soils

In the chronological sequence of postagrogenic soils, the restoration of the original differentiation of the soil profile and its horizons proceeded with different rates depending on the fallow age and the horizon depth. The layer sampling (at 5-cm intervals) showed that the plow horizon began to differentiate into a system of subhorizons in all the fallow soils. The zonal pedogenesis showed clear signs of manifestation already in the 15-year-old fallow. The upper part of the former plow horizon in the 15- and 60-year-old fallows under herbaceous plants was transformed into a soddy horizon, while a postagrogenic soil 90 years old already developed under a zonal type of vegetation and approached the control soil in its morphological features. The content and reserve of carbon in the soils showed a stable tendency of increasing (especially in the upper part of the plow horizon) during the entire postagrogenic period under study. The water permeability of the soils gradually increased and approached that of the virgin soil. However, the compacted subsurface horizon (the plow pan) disappeared only after 90 years. The assessment of the physicochemical properties of the soils and the structural and functional parameters of the humic acids indicated the expansion of the layer differentiation primarily within the homogeneous plow horizon. From the elemental analysis and 13C NMR spectroscopy data, the degree of aromaticity in the molecular structure of the humic acids gradually decreased, and the aliphatic part developed with the age of the fallow.     

Geographic and genetic specificity of permafrost-affected soils in central Yakutia

The genesis, composition, and properties of the major types of permafrost-affected soils of central Yakutia were studied along a 30-km-long soil catena within the middle taiga zone near Yakutsk. It is shown that the distribution of different soils along the catena is controlled by the climatic zonality in the Yakutsk Depression; taiga soils are replaced by soddy forest-steppe soils and soddy meadow-steppe soils with a decrease in the absolute height of the territory.     

Selenium retention in the organic matter of Swedish forest soils

Fractions of selenium present in the soil profiles of three Swedish podzols were analysed using a sequential extraction scheme to characterize Se distribution among the organic and inorganic fractions. The process by which selenite deposited from the atmosphere is retained in a podzolic profile rich in organic matter was studied in a column experiment. Selenium present in organic fractions accounted for most of the Se extracted by Na₄P₂O₇/NaOH. All soil organic matter fractions, particularly those in the B horizons, were considerably enriched with Se as compared with plant biomass. The most enriched fraction was that containing hydrophobic fulvates which had C to Se ratios ranging from 33 000 to 80 000. The distribution of Se among the organic fractions differed markedly from that of sulphur. Selenite applied to columns continuously for 67 d was fixed very rapidly upon entering the forest floor layers, with 77% being recovered in the top 2 cm of the forest floor after the experiment. In column leachates from the surface layers, C to Se ratios decreased progressively following Se application. No effect specifically related to Se application was observed for leachates and soil horizons underlying Bs1. The mechanism responsible for the efficient and rapid Se immobilization by organic matter is unknown.     

Recovery rate of organic c in organic matter fractions of Grantsburg soils

Abstract

Walkley‐Black method is a simple and rapid method for organic carbon analysis. Because of incomplete oxidation of organic carbon (C), the recovery of organic C is low with this method. Assuming the 77% recovery of organic C with Walkley‐Black method, the results are corrected with a correction factor of 1.30. The objective of this study is to determine the soil organic C recovery rate and appropriate correction factor for Walkley‐Black (wet combustion) method for tilled soils in southern Illinois. Soil samples were collected in 1995 and 1996 from a trial established in southern Illinois on a moderately well drained, Grantsburg (fine‐silty, mixed, mesic Oxyaquic Fragiudalf) soil. Organic C contents with the Leco analyzer (dry combustion) were significantly higher as compared to the Walkley‐Black method in different tillage systems (no‐till, chisel plow and moldboard plow), soil organic matter fractions (whole soil and mineral fraction) and soil depths (0–5 and 5–15 cm). The recovery percentage of organic C was lower than the assumed percentage with the Walkley‐Black method. No significant differences in organic C recovery percentage were found due to differences in tillage systems and depths, whereas the recovery percentage was lower in mineral fraction as compared to the whole soil. The lower organic C recovery percentage was due to the more stable organic C compounds in the mineral fraction. On the basis of these findings, correction factors of 1.35 and 1.41 are proposed for whole soil and mineral organic C analysis with Walkley‐Black method, respectively for tilled Grantsburg and other similar soils in southern Illinois.     

Retention of dissolved organic matter by illitic soils and clay fractions: Influence of mineral phase properties

The dependency of the retention of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) on mineral phase properties in soils remains uncertain especially at neutral pH. To specifically elucidate the role of mineral surfaces and pedogenic oxides for DOC retention at pH 7, we sorbed DOC to bulk soil (illitic surface soils of a toposequence) and corresponding clay fraction (< 2 μm) samples after the removal of organic matter and after removal of organic matter and pedogenic oxides. The DOC retention was related to the content of dithionite‐extractable iron, specific surface area (SSA, BET‐N₂ method) and cation exchange capacity (pH 7). The reversibility of DOC sorption was determined by a desorption experiment. All samples sorbed 20–40 % of the DOC added. The DOC sorption of the clay fractions explained the total sorption of the bulk soils. None of the mineral phase properties investigated was able to solely explain the DOC retention. A sorption of 9 to 24 μg DOC m^–2 indicated that DOC interacted only with a fraction of the mineral surface, since loadings above 500 μg m^–2 would be expected for a carbon monolayer. Under the experimental conditions used, the surface of the silicate clay minerals seemed to be more important for the DOC sorption than the surface of the iron oxides. The desorption experiment removed 11 to 31 % of the DOC sorbed. Most of the DOC was strongly sorbed.     

Paramagnetic activity of organic matter in soils of the Ubsu-Nur Depression

The effect of the humus content and composition, the humification intensity, and the pH on the paramagnetic activity of organic matter in soils of vertical zones of the Ubsu-Nur Depression was revealed. It was found that the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra of these soils have a relatively broad absorption band with the g factor equal to 2.0031 ± 0.0002; the EPR spectral curve has the form of the first derivative of the Gaussian absorption curve. The method of calculating the EPR spectral intensity was specified; regression equations were calculated for the pairs: the total carbon and the spectral intensity, the (HA + FA) carbon and the spectral intensity, and the C_ha/C_fa ratio and the spectral intensity, which showed a correlation between the group composition of the humus and the EPR spectral intensity. The results obtained permitted us to separate the soils of the Ubsu-Nur Depression into three groups with high, medium, and low effects of the humus status parameters on the EPR spectrum intensity.     

Prolonged leaching of mineral forest soils with dilute HCl solutions: the solubility of Al and soil organic matter

Long-term acidification has been shown to result in a considerable decrease in the amount of organically bound soil Al and in a gradual decrease in the solubility of Al. We examined the solubility of soil organic matter (SOM) and Al in four acid mineral soils (one Arenosol Ah, two Podzol Bh, and one Podzol Bs) as they were leached sequentially using a solution containing 0.001 m HCl and 0.01 m KCl. The acid leaching resulted in relative decreases in Al that were 2–6 times greater than for organic C. The organic C and Al dissolved by the acid leaching originated mainly in the pyrophosphate-extractable fraction of the elements. Protonation seems to be a major mechanism in stabilizing the residual SOM, as indicated by small changes in effective cation exchange capacity with the degree of acid leaching. In the samples of Podzol Bh and Arenosol Ah soils the solubility of Al (defined as log₁₀{Al³⁺} + 1.5pH) in equilibrium suspensions (0.01 m KCl) was closely related to the ratio of pyrophosphate-extractable Al to pyrophosphate-extractable organic C. The Podzol Bs sample probably contained a small amount of a surface-reactive Al(OH)₃ phase, which rapidly became depleted by the acid leaching.     

Organo‐mineral associations in temperate soils: Integrating biology,mineralogy, and organic matter chemistry

We summarize progress with respect to (1) different approaches to isolate, extract, and quantify organo‐mineral compounds from soils, (2) types of mineral surfaces and associated interactions, (3) the distribution and function of soil biota at organo‐mineral surfaces, (4) the distribution and content of organo‐mineral associations, and (5) the factors controlling the turnover of organic matter (OM) in organo‐mineral associations from temperate soils. Physical fractionation achieves a rough separation between plant residues and mineral‐associated OM, which makes density or particle‐size fractionation a useful pretreatment for further differentiation of functional fractions. A part of the OM in organo‐mineral associations resists different chemical treatments, but the data obtained cannot readily be compared among each other, and more research is necessary on the processes underlying resistance to treatments for certain OM components. Studies using physical‐fractionation procedures followed by soil‐microbiological analyses revealed that organo‐mineral associations spatially isolate C sources from soil biota, making quantity and quality of OM in microhabitats an important factor controlling community composition. The distribution and activity of soil microorganisms at organo‐mineral surfaces can additionally be modified by faunal activities. Composition of OM in organo‐mineral associations is highly variable, with loamy soils having generally a higher contribution of polysaccharides, whereas mineral‐associated OM in sandy soils is often more aliphatic. Though highly reactive towards Fe oxide surfaces, lignin and phenolic components are usually depleted in organo‐mineral associations. Charred OM associated with the mineral surface contributes to a higher aromaticity in heavy fractions. The relative proportion of OC bound in organo‐mineral fractions increases with soil depth. Likewise does the strength of the bonding. Organic molecules sorbed to the mineral surfaces or precipitated by Al are effectively stabilized, indicated by reduced susceptibility towards oxidative attack, higher thermal stability, and lower bioavailability. At higher surface loading, organic C is much better bioavailable, also indicated by little ¹⁴C age. In the subsurface horizons of the soils investigated in this study, Fe oxides seem to be the most important sorbents, whereas phyllosilicate surfaces may be comparatively more important in topsoils. Specific surface area of soil minerals is not always a good predictor for C‐stabilization potentials because surface coverage is discontinuous. Recalcitrance and accessibility/aggregation seem to determine the turnover dynamics in fast and intermediate cycling OM pools, but for long‐term OC preservation the interactions with mineral surfaces, and especially with Fe oxide surfaces, are a major control in all soils investigated here.     

Participation of soil invertebrates in the organic matter decomposition in forest ecosystems of Central Siberia

The biomass of large invertebrates was studied in the soils of forest ecosystems in the forest-tundra and southern taiga of Central Siberia. Its formation is shown to be controlled by the integrated effect of the soil and climatic conditions. The distribution of the zoomass according to the main taxonomic groups testifies to the higher functional significance of the large saprophagous invertebrates in the ecosystems of the southern taiga compared to those of the forest-tundra. The quantitative contribution of the invertebrates-destroyers to the organic matter decomposition was assessed on the basis of field experiments; it was shown to be determined by the quality of the material decomposed irrespective of the conditions and time of its exposition. Every year, soil saprophages decompose 0.5–2.0% of the total phytodetritus reserves in the forest-tundra and 3–14% in the southern taiga amounting to 12–54% of its losses upon decomposition.     

Specific features of organic matter in urban soils of Rostov-on-Don

Data on the fractional and group composition of humus in urban soils of Rostov-on-Don are discussed. We have compared the humus profiles of chernozems under tree plantations and those buried under anthropogenic deposits (including sealed chernozems under asphalt). It is shown that the type of humus in these soils remains stable despite a decrease in its total content after the long-term burial under asphalt. Under the impact of the trees, the organic matter of the chernozems acquired some features typical of gray forest soils, i.e., the humate-fulvate type of humus in the humus horizon and the sharp drop in the humus content down the soil profile.     

Degradation of organotin compounds in organic and mineral forest soils

Broad industrial application of organotin compounds (OTC) leads to their release into the environment. OTC are deposited from the atmosphere into forest ecosystems and may accumulate in soils. Here, we studied the degradation of methyltin and butyltin compounds in a forest floor, a mineral, and a wetland soil with incubation experiments at 20 °C in the dark. OTC degraded slowly in soils with half‐lives estimated from 0.5 to 15 years. The first order degradation rate constants of OTC in soils ranged from 0.05 to 1.54 yr^–1. The degradation rates in soils were generally in the order mono‐ ≥ di‐ > tri‐substituted OTC. Stepwise dealkylation was observed in all cases of di‐substituted OTC, but only in some cases of tri‐substituted OTC. Decomposition rates of OTC in the forest floor were higher than in wetland and mineral soils. Tetramethyltin in the gas phase was not detected, suggesting little tin methylation in the wetland soils. Slow degradation of OTC in soils might lead to long‐term storage of atmospherically deposited OTC in soils.     

A new approach to calculate the particle density of soils considering properties of the soil organic matter and the mineral matrix

The particle density of soil (ρ_S) represents one of the soil's basic physical properties and it depends on the composition of both the mineral and the organic soil components. It therefore varies for different soils, e.g. within the group of mineral soils, and ranges from 2.4–2.9 g cm⁻³. Hence, awareness of this variability is important for properties estimated by a calculation involving particle density. Because ρ_S depends on both the soil's solid mineral particles and soil organic matter composition, we derived a function based on the mixture ratio of these two soil components. This approach represents a further development of earlier investigations dealing with the influence of organic carbon (C_org) on ρ_S. To parameterise this function, two data sets were used: (1) data from soils with C_org contents between 0% and 54.88% and corresponding values of ρ_S between 1.49 and 2.72 g cm⁻³; and (2) data from soils of 17 German long-term experiments contrasting in soil texture and in soil mineral inventory. Data set 1 was used to quantify the influence of soil organic matter on ρ_S, and data set 2 was used to calculate the influence of mineral matrix on ρ_S. The soil organic matter has two major influences on ρ_S: (1) via a mass effect (expressed as a mixture ratio between organic and mineral soil components); and (2) via a quality effect (expressed as calculated changes in particle density of organic soil components). Here, we calculated that with increasing content of soil organic matter (0–100%), the particle density of organic soil components rose from about 1.10 to 1.50 g cm⁻³, and present possible reasons for this phenomenon. Additionally, we demonstrate that the mineral matrix of the soil affects ρ_S especially via variations in the mineral inventory, but conclude that differences in particle size distribution of soils were to a lesser extent suitable for describing the influence of the mineral matrix on ρ_S. Overall, using our approach should generate more realistic values of ρ_S, and consequently of all calculated parameters which are sensitive to ρ_S.     

Non-cellulosic neutral sugar contribution to mineral associated organic matter in top- and subsoil horizons of two acid forest soils

We investigated the polysaccharide composition of bulk and mineral-bound (density fractions >2 g cm⁻³) organic matter in topsoil and subsoil horizons of a Podzol and a Cambisol. Total sugar contents were generally higher in the Cambisol than in the Podzol. For most horizons of both soils, the sugars were enriched in the mineral-bound organic matter fraction. This fraction showed a monosaccharide distribution typical for microbial sugars, whereas in bulk soil horizons higher contributions of plant-derived sugars were observed. A strong relationship with the ¹⁴C activity of the dense fraction suggests that microbial-derived polysaccharides are most likely stabilised preferentially by mineral interactions compared to plant-derived polysaccharides.