Productivity Growth in China’s Agriculture During 1985-2010

This paper made an empirical analysis of China＇s agricultural growth path and influential factors using the province-level panel data of agricultural inputs and outputs during 1985-2010.The findings indicate that the increase in agricultural inputs and TFP contributed 40.6 and 55.2% to the agricultural output growth,respectively;China＇s agriculture had jumped out of the pattern which output growth was mainly driven by increasing input.Of the total inputs,chemical fertilizer had the most important contribution to the output growth,followed by mechanical inputs.The contribution of land and labor was negative.China＇s agricultural output growth belonged to the type of induced technology innovation.China＇s agricultural TFP growth had characteristics of fluctuations over time and unbalanced between regions,but the gap between the eastern,the middle,and the western regions has been narrowed.     

A joint use of emergy evaluation,carbon footprint and economic analysis for sustainability assessment of grain system in China during 2000–2015

The rapid growth of grain yield in China accelerates a discussion on whether the grain system in China is sustainable. To answer the question, a comprehensive assessment from economic and environmental points is necessary. This study jointly used economic analysis(ECA), emergy evaluation(EME) and carbon footprint(CF) to analyze the environmental and economic sustainability of the grain production system in China based on the national statistical data during 2000–2015. Results showed that the costs of maize, wheat, rice and soybean had increased by 252-346% from 2000 to 2015, causing the lower profit of grain system in recent years. The situation resulted in a serious problem on economic sustainability of grain system in China. Meanwhile, the emergy sustainability index(ESI) of maize, wheat, rice and soybean systems were increasing during 2000–2015, and the CF on unit yield of the crops had been reduced by 10-30% in the study period. The results reflected the improved environmental sustainability of grain system in China during 2000–2015. Nevertheless, the emergy flow of industrial inputs for the crops were increased by 4-22% in the study period, and the CF from the inputs presented a growth rate of 16-23% as well during the same period. The results implied that the grain system in China was relying more on fossil-based inputs. Finally, according to the key points of cost, emergy and CF, we suggest that improving labor efficiency, advanced agricultural practices and optimizing cropping pattern will be effective ways to further improve the economic and environmental sustainability of grain system in China.     

Irrigation Water Use Efficiency of Farmers and Its Determinants： Evidence from a Survey in Northwestern China

Irrigation water shortage is becoming an increasingly serious problem in agricultural production. In this case, it is very important for policy makers to take measures to improve irrigation water use efficiency, especially in the water-scarce areas. In this paper, the data envelopment analysis （DEA） techniques, based on the concept of input-specific technical efficiency were used to develop farm-level technical efficiency measures and sub-vector efficiencies for irrigation water use. The Tobit regression technique was then adopted to identify the factors that influence irrigation water efficiency differentials under the shortage of water resources. Based on a sample data of 432 wheat farmers in northwestern China, our experimental results of the DEA analysis showed the average technical efficiency of 0.6151. It suggested that wheat farmers could increase their production by as much as 38.49% by using inputs more efficiently. Further, the mean irrigation water efficiency of 0.3065, suggested that wheat farmers could produce the same quantity of wheat using the same quantity of inputs but with 69.35% less water. The results of the Tobit regression analysis showed that the farmer＇s age, income, education level, and the farm size tended to affect the degree of irrigation water efficiency positively, and the channel conditions and different irrigation methods made a significant impact on irrigation water use efficiency. Furthermore, the arrangements of exclusive water property rights and competitive water price mechanism have effectively encouraged the water saving behavior of farmers. These results are valuable for policy makers since it could help to guide policies towards high irrigation water use efficiency.     

Technical efficiency and its determinants in China's hog production

China's hog production is undergoing a great transformation due to the soaring demand and changing raising system. Regarding the essential role of pork in Chinese diet, a systematic analysis on the productivity and efficiency of hog production can provide significant implications for policy makers. This paper investigates the productivity and efficiency of hog production and the determinants of technical efficiency in China using a household level panel data(2004–2010). A stochastic frontier translog production function with scaling property in inefficiency term is adopted for hog production analysis, and the determinants of technical efficiency are incorporated in a one-step estimation using maximum likelihood estimation. Our results show that the average technical efficiency of hog production in China is 0.5914. More importantly, we find that specialized farmers have higher technical efficiency than others, and technical efficiency in the eastern region is higher than that in Central and West China.     

科技进步对重庆建筑业经济增长作用的实证分析

以重庆建筑业1997-2006年的数据为样本,借助于柯布-道格拉斯生产函数和索洛余值法计算出重庆建筑业资本投入、劳动力投入以及科技进步对产出增长的相对贡献率分别是74.2%、24.1%和1.7%;1997-2006年重庆建筑业发展的生产函数模型为:Q=4.627L~(0.189)K~(0.682).分析结果说明,重庆建筑业现阶段正处于规模效益递减的发展阶段,仍以劳动和资本投入为主,科技进步推动作用不够明显,其建筑业经济增长质量不容乐观.

Abstract：

Based on the statistic data from 1997 to 2006,this paper employs Cobb-Douglas production function and the method of Solow remaining value to calculate and analyze the contributions of several factors to the total output increase in construction industry of Chongqing.The results show that the C-D function for Chongqing construction economic growth during 1997～2006 is:Q=4.627L~(0.189)K~(0.682);and the contribution of capital input,labor input and science and technological progress are 74.2%,24.1%and 1.7%,respectively.The research shows that Chongqing construction industry is in a decreasing state and the construction economic growth depends mainly on labor and capital input,while the promoting role of science and technology progress is not obvious.     

Identifying the limiting factors driving the winter wheat yield gap on smallholder farms by agronomic diagnosis in North China Plain

North China Plain(NCP) is the primary winter wheat production region in China, characterized by smallholder farming systems. Whereas the winter wheat average yield of smallholder farmers is currently low, the yield potential and limiting factors driving the current yield gap remain unclear. Therefore, increasing the wheat yield in NCP is essential for the national food security. This study monitored wheat yield, management practices and soil nutrient data in 132 farmers' fields of Xushui County, Baoding City, Hebei Province during 2014–2016. These data were analyzed using variance and path analysis to determine the yield gap and the contribution of yield components(i.e., spikes per hectare, grain number per spike and 1 000-grain weight) to wheat yield. Then, the limiting factors of yield components and the optimizing strategies were identified by a boundary line approach. The results showed that the attainable potential yield for winter wheat was 10 514 kg ha~(–1). The yield gaps varied strongly between three yield groups(i.e., high, middle and low), which were divided by yield level and contained 44 farmers in each group, and amounted to 2 493, 1 636 and 814 kg ha~(–1), respectively. For the three yield components, only spikes per hectare was significantly different(P0.01) among the three yield groups. For all 132 farmers' fields, correlation between yield and spikes per hectare(r=0.51, P0.01), was significantly positive, while correlations with grain number per spike(r=–0.16) and 1 000-grain weight(r=–0.10) were not significant. The path analysis also showed that the spikes per hectare of winter wheat were the most important component to the wheat yield. Boundary line analysis showed that seeding date was the most limiting factor of spikes per hectare with the highest contribution rate(26.7%), followed by basal N input(22.1%) and seeding rate(14.5%), which indicated that management factors in the seeding step were the most important for affecting spikes per hectare. For desired spikes per hectare(6.598×10~6 ha~(–1)),the seeding rate should range from 210–300 kg ha~(–1), seeding date should range from 3th to 8th October, and basal N input should range from 90~(–1)80 kg ha~(–1). Compared to these reasonable ranges of management measures, most of the farmers' practices were not suitable, and both lower and higher levels of management existed. It is concluded that the strategies for optimizing yield components could be achieved by improving wheat seeding quality and optimizing farmers' nutrient management practices in the NCP.     

Comparison of energy consumption and economic performance of organic and conventional soybean production——A case study from Jilin Province,China

Modern agriculture heavily depends on energy consumption, especially fossil energy, but intensive energy input increases the production cost for producers and results in environmental pollution.Organic agricultural production is considered a more sustainable system, but there is lack of scientific research on the energy consumption between organic and conventional systems in China.The analysis and comparison of energy use between the two systems would help decision-makers to establish economic, effective and efficient agricultural production.Thus, the objectives of the present study are to analyze energy inputs, outputs, energy efficiency, and economic benefits between organic and conventional soybean(Glycine max(L.) Merrill) production.A total of 24 organic farmers and 24 conventional farmers in Jilin Province, China, were chosen for investigation in 2010 production year.Total energy input was 71.55 GJ ha–1 and total energy output was 96.18 GJ ha–1 in the organic system, resulting in an energy efficiency(output/input) of 1.34.Total energy input was 9.37 GJ ha–1 and total energy output was 113.4 GJ ha–1 in the conventional system, resulting in the energy efficiency of 12.1.The huge discrepancy in energy inputs and respective efficiencies lies in the several times higher nutrient inputs in the organic compared to the conventional production system.Finally, the production costs ha–1 were 33% higher, and the net income ha–1 25% lower in the organic compared to the conventional soybean production system.It is recommended to improve fertilizer management in organic production to improve its energetic and economic performance.     

Current state and suggestions for mechanical harvesting of corn in China

<正>Corn(Zea mays L.) accounts for the largest shares of planting area and total yield of grain crops in China. Corn production has played a significant role in the country’s development of agriculture and national economy. Harvesting requires the largest amount of manual labor in the entire corn production process, accounting for about 50–60% of the total labor input. Thus,     

A Survey on Basic Business Problems of Pistachio Farmers in Turkey

Turkey is an important country which has pistachio trees in the world. The Southeastern Anatolia Project （GAP） region located in southeastern of Anatolia has all of pistachio trees. In other words, pistachio trees have grown only in GAP region. Provinces of ~anliurfa, Gaziantep and Adiyaman are in the GAP region. In this study, we have investigated problems of pistachio farmers in these cities. So, we applied survey to pistachio farmers. Then we analyzed data which we had from the surveys with SPSS. As a result, the farmers have mainly got input problems, marketing problems, processing problems, keeping problems, financial problems, labor problems and managerial problems. As a solution, pistachio farmers must set up cooperatives which help finding inputs, markets, loan, labor, manager them and come up with their problems. Government has to support pistachio farmers and price of pistachio yield, pistachio farmers must have training programs about theirs works. Finally, pistachio nuts of stock market must be surely founded.     

The Comparative Role of Intervening Variables in Understanding Farmers＇ Adoption Behavior

The purpose of this study was to indentify the most important determinants associated with behavior change by comparing the influence of intervening variables and the characteristics of the farmer and the farm （independent variables） on the adoption behavior of farmers for recommended agronomic practices. A total of 107 farmers out of a population of 214 were randomly selected from two adjoining districts of South Africa and Lesotho. Chi-square and correlations and regression analyses were used to determine the relationship between the independent, dependent and intervening variables. The results show clear differences between the independent in regard to their influence on adoption behavior, but these influences also vary significantly between the practices. In general the influence of independent variable is limited, and together their total contribution in explaining the variance in adoption （R2） varied between about 20 to 40 percent whilst that of the intervening variables varied between 50 and over 70 percent, which clearly supports the research hypothesis that their prediction arid explanation value in terms of behavior is much bigger than that of independent, personal and environmental factors.     

Farmers' participatory selection of new rice varieties to boost production under temperate agro-ecosystems

In mountain agriculture, early maturity, high grain yield and high biomass are generally considered as farmer preferred traits in rice crop in addition to a multiple set of traits collectively responsible for variety adoption or rejection. The varieties tested only on station evaluation trials without taking the data from the farmers' fields by not including farmers as partners for variety evaluation are the reasons of low adoption of varieties. In this regard, a participatory methodology was followed by conducting a number of participatory trials in the farmers' fields during 2012–2014 in six districts of Kashmir Valley, India. The mother trials in the farmers' fields showed that the test variety SKUA-408 consistently and significantly out yielded Jhelum and farmers' variety followed by Shalimar rice 3(SR3). The other released varieties like SR1 and SR2 could not perform nicely in the farmers' fields because of late maturity. After making the t-test comparison of baby trials(paired plots), the mean yield superiority of test varieties SKUA-408, SR3, and SKUA-403 over farmers' variety during 2013 was around 23, 25, and 22%, respectively, whereas in 2014 the respective yield advantage was recorded as 16.3, 17.7, and 16.2%. In all districts, SKUA-408 and SR3 were significantly preferred by farmers(P0.05 or 0.01) in terms of pre-harvest traits namely, tillering ability and general phenotypic acceptability, early maturity and biomass and for post-harvest traits such as general cooking quality besides, the intention to grow the variety for next year. Adoption and dissemination of SKUA-408 began in 2014 from the farm-saved seed in the form of farmer to farmer seed exchange. Farmers are the end users of a variety so the decision by the farmers while judging the variety should be taken into consideration to make the varietal choice more effective for its widespread adoption.     

IMPACTS OF TECHNICAL ENVIRONMENT ON THE ADOPTION OF ORGANIC FERTILIZERS AND BIOPESTICIDES AMONG FARMERS: EVIDENCE FROM HEILONGJIANG PROVINCE,CHINA

Excessive application of mineral fertilizers and synthetic pesticides poses a substantial threat to the soil and water environment and food security.Organic fertilizer and biopesticides have gradually become essential technology for reducing mineral fertilizer and pesticide inputs. In the process,the technical environment is critical for promoting farmer behavior related to the adoption of organic fertilizer and biopesticides. This paper analyzes the influence of the technical environment on far...     

Study on the Theory and Technology of High Yield Culture of Compact Corn

Using the split plot and multi-quadric regressive orthogonal cross-course rotary combination design, corn variety Denghai 6‘s yield and yield components, important colony quality and physiological index, microclimate index in field and technical planting for high yield were studied. Cultivation for high yield showed that Denghai 6 had the great potential of increase yield. The average yield of two years was 12510kg/ha for 13.85ha, the highest grain yield (754.7m2) was 15477kg/ha. The climatic conditions can meet the needs for high yield during the whole growth stage of corn in the mountain area of Northwest Guizhou.     

Developing sustainable summer maize production for smallholder farmers in the North China Plain: An agronomic diagnosis method

With an increasing population and changing diet structure, summer maize is increasingly becoming an important energy crop in China. However, traditional farmer practices for maize production are inefficient and unsustainable. To ensure food security and sustainable development of summer maize production in China, an improved, more sustainable farmer management system is needed. Establishing this system requires a comprehensive understanding of the limitations of current farming practice and the ways it could be improved. In our study, 235 plots from three villages in the North China Plain(NCP) were monitored. Maize production on farms was evaluated; our results showed that the maize yield and nitrogen partial factor productivity(PFP_N) were variable on smallholder farms at 6.6~(–1)3.7 t ha~(–1) and 15.4–88.7 kg kg~(–1), respectively.Traditional farming practices also have a large environmental impact(nitrogen surplus: –64.2–323.78 kg ha~(–1)). Key yield components were identified by agronomic diagnosis. Grain yield depend heavily on grain numbers per hectare rather than on the 1 000-grain weight. A set of improved management practices(IP) for maize production was designed by employing a boundary line(BL) approach and tested on farms. Results showed that the IP could increase yield by 18.4% and PFP_N by 31.1%, compared with traditional farmer practices(FP), and reduce the nitrogen(N) surplus by 57.9 kg ha~(–1). However,in terms of IP effect, there was a large heterogeneity among different smallholder farmers' fields, meaning that, precise technologies were needed in different sites especially for N fertilizer management. Our results are valuable for policymakers and smallholder farmers for meeting the objectives of green development in agricultural production.     

Effects of deep vertical rotary tillage on the grain yield and resource use efficiency of winter wheat in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain of China

Tillage represents an important practice that is used to dynamically regulate soil properties,and affects the grain production process and resource use efficiency of crops.The objectives of this 3-year field study carried out in the Huang-Huai-Hai(HHH) Plain of China were to compare the effects of a new deep vertical rotary tillage (DVRT) with the conventional shallow rotary tillage (CT) on soil properties,winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain yield and water and nitrogen use efficiency at different productivity levels,and to identify a comprehensive management that optimizes both grain yield and resource use efficiency in the HHH Plain.A split-plot design was adopted in field experiments in the winter wheat growing seasons of 2016–2017 (S1),2017–2018 (S2) and 2018–2019 (S3),with DVRT (conducted once in June 2016) and CT performed in the main plots.Subplots were treated with one of four targeted productivity level treatments (SH,the super high productivity level;HH,the high productivity and high efficiency productivity level;FP,the farmer productivity level;ISP,the inherent soil productivity level).The results showed that the soil bulk density was reduced and the soil water content at the anthesis stage was increased in all three years,which were due to the significant effects of DVRT.Compared with CT,grain yields,partial factor productivity of nitrogen (PFP_N),and water use efficiency (WUE) under DVRT were increased by 22.0,14.5 and 19.0%.Path analysis and direct correlation decomposition uncovered that grain yield variation of winter wheat was mostly contributed by the spike numbers per area under different tillage modes.General line model analysis revealed that tillage mode played a significant role on grain yield,PFP_N and WUE not only as a single factor,but also along with other factors(year and productivity level) in interaction manners.In addition,PFP_N and WUE were the highest in HH under DVRT in all three growth seasons.These results provided a theoretical basis and technical support for coordinating the high yield with high resource use efficiency of winter wheat in the resource-restricted region in the HHH Plain of China.     

Effects of different mechanical direct seeding methods on grain yield and lodging resistance of early indica rice in South China

Direct seeding of rice has become a main planting method due to the low labor input and high economic benefit in South China. Dry direct seeding(DDS) has been widely used for single-season rice planting establishment. However, few studies have examined the performance of early-season indica rice under mechanical dry direct seeding. A two-year field experiment was conducted with two indica rice cultivars(i.e., Zhongjiazao 17 and Zhuliangyou 819) to study lodging characteristics and grain yield formation under DDS, flooded direct seeding(FDS) and wet direct seeding(WDS) patterns. The results showed that the annual grain yield in DDS was higher by 14.42–26.34% for cultivar ZLY819 and 6.64–24.58% for cultivar ZJZ17 than in WDS and FDS, respectively, and these increases were mainly attributed to the improvement of the panicles. The DDS pattern significantly increased the seedling emergence rate of early indica rice cultivars, and increased total dry weight and crop growth rate. Meanwhile, shorter basal internodes, better stem diameter and stem wall thickness and lower lodging index were found in DDS in contrast to FDS and WDS. In particular, DDS improved the stem lodging resistance. Our results suggested that the appropriate direct seeding method was beneficial for improving the grain yield and lodging resistance of early indica rice.     

A new feasible method for yield gap analysis in regions dominanted by smallholder farmers,with a case study of Jiangsu Province,China

In the regions where crops were mostly produced by smallholder farmers, the analysis of yield gap is difficult due to diverse cultivars, crop managements and yield levels. In order to find an effective method that can reasonably verify the yield gap and the limiting cultivation factors in narrowing yield gaps in areas that are dominanted by smallholder farmers, we worked out a method consisting five progressive procedures as follows: questionnaire investigation of farmer cultivation regime, identification of yield levels and yield gaps, generalization of key cultivation measurements, reconstruction of representative maize populations, and process-based analysis of yield gap. A case study was carried out in Jiangsu Province, China, in which maize is mostly produced by smallholder farmers. A questionnaire investigation of 1 023 smallholder farmers was carried out firstly, then the frequency distribution of maize yield was simulated by an normal distribution function, and then the covering range and average value of the basic yield, farmer yield and high-yield farmer yield levels were calculated out from the equation. Hereby, the yield gaps 1, 2 and 3 were calculated along with the record highest yield from literature and experts, which were 2 564, 2 346 and 2 073 kg ha~(–1), respectively. Moreover, with the covering range of each yield level, the suveyed farmers belonging to each yield level were grouped together and then their major cultivation measures were traced and generalized. With the generalized cultivation measures, representative maize populations of the four yield levels were reconstructed, and thereby clarifing lots of characters of the populations or single plant of each population with processbased analysis of the reconstructed populations. In this case, the main factors causing the yield gap were plant density, fertilizer application rate, logging caused by hurricane, and damages caused by pests. The case study primarily indicated that this five-step method is feasible and effective in yield gap study, especially in smallholder farmers dominant regions.     

Climate Change Impact and Its Contribution Share to Paddy Rice Production in Jiangxi,China

In the study, an improved approach was proposed to identify the contribution shares of three group factors that are climate, technology and input, social economic factors by which the grain production is shaped. In order to calibrate the method, Jiangxi Province, one of the main paddy rice producers in China was taken as an example. Based on 50 years （1961-2010） meteorological and statistic data, using GIS and statistical analysis tools, the three group factors that in certain extent impact China＇s paddy rice production have been analyzed quantitatively. The individual and interactive contribution shares of each factor group have been identiifed via eta square （η2）. In the paper, two group ordinary leasr square （OLS） models, paddy models and climate models, have been constructed for further analysis. Each model group consists of seven models, one full model and six partial models. The results of paddy models show that climate factors individually and interactively contribute 11.42-15.25%explanatory power to the variation of paddy rice production in the studied province. Technology and input factors contribute 16.17%individually and another 8.46%interactively together with climate factors, totally contributing about 25%. Social economic factors contribute about 7%of which 4.65%is individual contribution and 2.49%is interactive contribution together with climate factors. The three factor groups individually contribute about 23%and interactively contribute additional 41%to paddy rice production. In addition every two of the three factor groups also function interactively and contribute about 22%. Among the three factor groups, technology and input are the most important factors to paddy rice production. The results of climate models support the results of paddy models, and display that solar radiation （indicated by sunshine hour variable） is the dominate climate factor for paddy rice production.     

Analysis of Differences in Productivity,Profitability and Soil Fertility Between Organic and Conventional Cropping Systems in the Tropics and Sub-tropics

Organic farming aims to stimulate soil fertility by avoiding the use of synthetic fertiliser inputs, relying instead on locally available natural resources. It is regarded by many as a sustainable alternative to conventional fanning because it ensures higher biodiversity, restricts environmental pollution, prevents land degradation and is easy to apply for smallholder and subsistence farmers. Although widely practiced and studied in temperate regions, little is known about the potential overall benefits of organic farming in the tropics and subtropics. This paper addresses this gap by undertaking an analysis of the differences between organic and conventional agriculture in the tropics and sub-tropics based on an extensive literature review including 88 papers with 458 data pairs. The comparison is based on three main indicators： yield, gross margin and soil organic carbon （SOC）. The differences between the organic and conventional systems for each of these main indicators is represented by the ratio of the value of the indicator in the organic system divided by the corresponding value in the conventional system. This was initially calculated for each data pair individually, and grouped by a variety of explanatory factors, such as precipitation, human development level, soil texture, crop type, organic input type, time after conversion and certification. The results demonstrate that under organic management, yields were on average 26% higher, gross margins 51% higher and soil organic carbon 53% higher than under conventional management. The highest yield increases in organic cropping systems were achieved in the least developed countries, in arid regions and on coarse soils. For gross margins, certification was the main reason for differences between organic and conventional systems. Certified farmers, mostly located in developed countries, receive significantly higher prices. Furthermore, organic farming in the driest regions results in higher profits than in other regions. Even though soil organic carbon