Regional impact assessment on forest structure and functions under climate change—the Brandenburg case study

A forest simulation model has been applied in a regional impact assessment to investigate impacts of climate change on forest structure and function in the Federal state of Brandenburg, Germany. The forest model FORSKA-M was linked to a GIS that included soil, groundwater table and land-use maps. Two climate scenarios (current climate and a climate change of 1.5 K temperature increase which is combined with a precipitation decrease of 10–20% on average) for 40 meteorological stations in and around Brandenburg were used to assess the sensitivity of species composition to climate change. Furthermore, the implications of vegetation changes for other forest functions were analysed by means of several indicators. To evaluate the impacts of climate change on biodiversity, measures of species diversity (Shannon’s and Simpson’s index) and habitat and structural diversity (Seibert’s index) were applied. The evaluation of impacts on groundwater recharge of natural and managed forests was carried out using the soil water balance model of FORSKA-M.At first, model simulations of the potential natural vegetation (PNV) on the whole area of Brandenburg with different climate scenarios were analysed. The results indicated that climatic warming would lead to a shift in the natural species composition in Brandenburg towards more drought tolerant species. The simulated diversity of the forests would be reduced, and groundwater recharge would be decreased.The majority of forests in the state of Brandenburg have been managed intensively in the past. At present, large areas of Brandenburg’s forests are dominated by pure stands of Scots pine, but current forest management practice aims at increasing the share of deciduous and mixed forests. In order to analyse the possible consequences of climate change on forest management, forest inventory data were used to initialise FORSKA-M with representative forest stands. Simulation experiments with three different management scenarios showed that the short to mid-term effects of climatic change in terms of species composition were not as severe as expected. However, the comparison of different diversity measures indicates a decrease in the species diversity in contrast to an increase in habitat diversity under climate warming. Furthermore, a decrease in productivity and groundwater recharge was simulated under the climate change scenario.The regional impact assessment corroborated the high sensitivity of natural forests in the region to the projected climatic change and it underlined the importance of adaptive management strategies to help forestry to cope with climatic change.     

Climate change and the probability of wind damage in two Swedish forests

We simulated how possible changes in wind and ground-frost climate and state of the forest due to changes in the future climate may affect the probability of exceeding critical wind speeds expected to cause wind damage within one northern and one southern study area in Sweden, respectively. The topography of the study areas was relatively gentle and the forests were dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Using estimated changes in the net primary production (NPP) due to climate change and assuming a relative change in the site productivity equal to a relative change in NPP, we simulated possible future states of the forest under gradual adjustment of the site index in response to climate change using the model The Forest Time Machine. Global climate change scenarios based on two emission scenarios and one general circulation model were downscaled to the regional level. The modified WINDA model was used to calculate the sensitivity of the forest to wind and the probability of wind damage for individual forest stands for the periods 2011–2041 and 2071–2100 and for a control period 1961–1990. This was done while taking into account effects on stability of the forest from expected changes in the occurrence of ground frost. Increasing sensitivity of the forest to wind was indicated for both study areas when adhering to recommended management rules of today. Adding also a changed wind climate further increased the probability of wind damage. Calculated probabilities of wind damage were generally higher in the southern study area than in the northern one and were explained by differences in wind climate and the state of the forests, for example with respect to tree species composition. The indicated increase in sensitivity of the forest to wind under the current management regime, and possibly increasing windiness, motivate further analysis of the effects of different management options on the probability of wind damage and what modifications of Swedish forest management are possibly warranted.     

Modelling the effects of climate change and timber harvest on the forests of central Nova Scotia, Canada

Context

Understanding the range of possible climate change impacts on forests and the interactions between them is vital to sustainable forest management.

Aims

We examine whether the combined influence of climate change and timber harvest will affect tree species distribution and productivity beyond predictions based on climate alone.

Methods

We used the landscape disturbance model LANDIS-II to simulate two climate and two harvest scenarios in 14,000 ha of managed watersheds.

Results

The elevated temperature led to a decline in the abundance of boreal species and a substantial increase in some temperate and pioneer species. Importantly, the interaction of climate change and timber harvest yielded changes in the distribution of some species that would not be expected based on climate alone. Conversely, some late-successional species exhibited resistance to climate-driven changes in their distribution. Climate change caused an increase in forest productivity when harvest was simulated, but a decrease in no-harvest scenarios. A time lag in forest response was likely responsible for this decrease in the absence of widespread mortality.

Conclusions

The finding that disturbance may drive the range expansion of early-successional broadleaved species and cause a decline of red spruce has implications for forest community associations, as well as for forest management where conifers are favoured for pulp production.     

Tree-rings reflect the impact of climate change on Quercus ilex L. along a temperature gradient in Spain over the last 100 years

We analyzed tree rings over the past 100 years to understand the response of Quercus ilex L. to climate change at four different sites along a temperature gradient in a highly anthropogenically transformed ecosystem. To test the hypothesis of a climate change related decrease in productivity at warmer sites, we discuss the effect of historical management on the growth of forest stands and the spatio-temporal variability of growth in response to climate, analyzing departures from linearity in that relationship. We reconstructed stand history and investigated past growth trends using tree-rings. Then we used a dendroecological approach to study the regional, local and age-dependent response to climate, analyzing the relationship between precipitation and tree growth using non-linear mixed models. Tree rings reflected the origin of the studied landscape, mainly a simplification of an original closed forest and progressive canopy opening for agrosilvopastoral purposes after the mid 1800s. As expected, trees were principally responding to water availability, and regional growth (as expressed by the first principal component from the matrix of chronologies) was highly responsive to hydrological year precipitation (r = 0.7). In this water limited ecosystem, the response of growth to precipitation was asymptotic and independent of age, but variable in time. Maximum growth was variable at the different sites and the non-linear function of growth saturated (i.e. reached an asymptote) at temperature dependent site specific precipitation levels within the range considered in the region to lead a shift towards deciduous species dominated woodlands (around 600 mm, variable with mean temperature). Only trees at warmer sites showed symptoms of growth decline, most likely explained by water stress increase in the last decades affecting the highly transformed open (i.e. low competition) tree structure. Stands at colder locations did not show any negative growth trend and may benefit from the current increase in winter temperatures. Coinciding with the decrease in productivity, trees at warmer sites responded more to moisture availability, exhibited a slower response to precipitation and reached maximum growth at higher precipitation levels than trees at colder sites. This suggests that warmer stands are threatened by climate change. The non-linear response of growth to precipitation described is meaningful for different ecological applications and provides new insights in the way trees respond to climate.     

Assessing risks and uncertainties in forest dynamics under different management scenarios and climate change

Background: Forest management faces a climate induced shift in growth potential and increasing current and emerging new risks. Vulnerability analysis provides decision support based on projections of natural resources taking risks and uncertainties into account. In this paper we(1) characterize differences in forest dynamics under three management scenarios,(2) analyse the effects of the three scenarios on two risk factors, windthrow and drought stress, and(3) quantify the effects and the amount of uncertainty arising from climate projections on height increment and drought stress.Methods: In four regions in northern Germany, we apply three contrasting management scenarios and project forest development under climate change until 2070. Three climate runs(minimum, median, maximum) based on the emission scenario RCP 8.5 control the site-sensitive forest growth functions. The minimum and maximum climate run define the range of prospective climate development.Results: The projections of different management regimes until 2070 show the diverging medium-term effects of thinnings and harvests and long-term effects of species conversion on a regional scale. Examples of windthrow vulnerability and drought stress reveal how adaptation measures depend on the applied management path and the decision-maker's risk attitude. Uncertainty analysis shows the increasing variability of drought risk projections with time. The effect of climate projections on height growth are quantified and uncertainty analysis reveals that height growth of young trees is dominated by the age-trend whereas the climate signal in height increment of older trees is decisive.Conclusions: Drought risk is a serious issue in the eastern regions independent of the applied silvicultural scenario,but adaptation measures are limited as the proportion of the most drought tolerant species Scots pine is already high. Windthrow risk is no serious overall threat in any region, but adequate counter-measures such as species conversion, species mixture or reduction of target diameter can be taken. This simulation study of three silvicultural scenarios and three climate runs spans a decision space of potential forest development to be used for decision making. Which adaptation measures to counteract climate induced risks and uncertainty are to be taken is,however, a matter of individual risk attitude.     

Impact of bark beetle (Ips typographus L.) disturbance on timber production and carbon sequestration in different management strategies under climate change

The likely environmental changes throughout the next century have the potential to strongly alter forest disturbance regimes which may heavily affect forest functions as well as forest management. Forest stands already poorly adapted to current environmental conditions, such as secondary Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forests outside their natural range, are expected to be particularly prone to such risks. By means of a simulation study, a secondary Norway spruce forest management unit in Austria was studied under conditions of climatic change with regard to effects of bark beetle disturbance on timber production and carbon sequestration over a time period of 100 years. The modified patch model PICUS v1.41, including a submodule of bark beetle-induced tree mortality, was employed to assess four alternative management strategies: (a) Norway spruce age-class forestry, (b) Norway spruce continuous cover forestry, (c) conversion to mixed species stands, and (d) no management. Two sets of simulations were investigated, one without the consideration of biotic disturbances, the other including possible bark beetle damages. Simulations were conducted for a de-trended baseline climate (1961–1990) as well as for two transient climate change scenarios featuring a distinct increase in temperature. The main objectives were to: (i) estimate the effects of bark beetle damage on timber production and carbon (C) sequestration under climate change; (ii) assess the effects of disregarding bark beetle disturbance in the analysis.Results indicated a strong increase in bark beetle damage under climate change scenarios (up to +219% in terms of timber volume losses) compared to the baseline climate scenario. Furthermore, distinct differences were revealed between the studied management strategies, pointing at considerably lower amounts of salvage in the conversion strategy. In terms of C storage, increased biotic disturbances under climate change reduced C storage in the actively managed strategies (up to −41.0 tC ha⁻¹) over the 100-year simulation period, whereas in the unmanaged control variant some scenarios even resulted in increased C sequestration due to a stand density effect.Comparing the simulation series with and without bark beetle disturbances the main findings were: (i) forest C storage was higher in all actively managed strategies under climate change, when biotic disturbances were disregarded (up to +31.6 tC ha⁻¹ over 100 years); and (ii) in the undisturbed, unmanaged variant C sequestration was lower compared to the simulations with bark beetle disturbance (up to −69.9 tC ha⁻¹ over 100 years). The study highlights the importance of including the full range of ecosystem-specific disturbances by isolating the effect of one important agent on timber production and C sequestration.     

Multiple-use forest management in consideration of climate change and the interests of stakeholder groups

In this study, the overall utility of forest management alternatives at the forest management unit level is evaluated with regard to multi-purpose and multi-user settings by a multi-criteria analysis (MCA) method. The MCA is based on an additive utility model. The relative importance of partial objectives of forest management (carbon sequestration, ground water recharge, biodiversity, and timber production) is defined in cooperation with stakeholders. The forest growth model 4C (Forest Ecosystems in a Changing Environment) is used to simulate the impact of six forest management strategies and climate on forest functions. Two climate change scenarios represent uncertainties with regard to future climatic conditions. The study is based on actual forest conditions in the Kleinsee management unit in east Germany, which is dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and oak (Quercus robur L. and Quercus petraea Liebl.) stands. First, there is an analysis of the impact of climate and forest management on forest functions. Climate change increases carbon sequestration and income from timber production due to increased stand productivity. Secondly, the overall utility of the management strategies is compared under the priority settings of different stakeholder groups. From an ecological perspective, a conservation strategy would be preferable under all climate scenarios, but the business as usual management would also fit the expectations under the current climate due to high biodiversity and carbon sequestration in the forest ecosystem. In contrast, a forest manager in public-owned forests or a private forest owner would prefer a management strategy with an intermediate thinning intensity and a high share of pine stands to enhance income from timber production while maintaining the other forest functions.     

Adapting the Congo Basin forests management to climate change: Linkages among biodiversity,forest loss,and human well-being

Tropical forests are at the center of any global debate on climate change and sustainable forest management because of their twin roles in climate change adaptation and mitigation and for resilient development. However, in the countries of the Congo Basin forests receive very little attention in national planning and policies. Climate change is not currently considered in decisions and long-term forest management plans in these countries. This paper demonstrates that: (1) Congo Basin forests are needed for adaptation because they can help to decrease human vulnerability to climate change; and (2) Congo Basin forest management practices need to be adapted to accommodate climate change because these forests are vulnerable to climate change. A framework for facilitating adaptation in forestry is discussed and a review of adaptive actions presented. The paper recommends the adoption of sustainable forest management approach that includes a climate change focus. Such management should not only avoid any adverse effects on the forest resources and conservation of biodiversity, but also provides opportunities for greater, more sustainable rural development and poverty alleviation through income generation and employment opportunities.     

The rise of the mediocre forest: why chronically stressed trees may better survive extreme episodic climate variability

Anthropogenic climate change is a relatively new phenomenon, largely occurring over the past 150 years, and much of the discussion on climate change impacts to forests has focused on long-term shifts in temperature and precipitation. However, individual trees respond to the much shorter impacts of climate variability. Historically, fast growing, fully canopied, non-chronically stressed (NCS) trees (e.g., those with minimal insect or disease damage, growing on high nutrient, moist soils), have been considered the model of individual health, while slower growing, broken crown, chronically stressed (CS) trees growing on nutrient poor, or dry soils, were considered to be unhealthy and prone to stress related mortality. Over the coming years and decades, climate variability (e.g., extreme precipitation events, drought, heat waves) is expected to increase. We hypothesize that as the duration, severity and interaction of stress becomes more pronounced under increasing climate variability, seemingly less healthy, CS trees could begin to survive environmental stress better than their traditionally considered healthy, NCS tree counterparts. We further hypothesize that this shift in survivorship will be attributed to tree response to increasingly extreme climate variability at levels not previously observed in recorded history. While NCS trees can better survive historic episodic stress, we hypothesize that CS trees may be better suited to survive the combination of chronic low-level stress, and extreme episodic stress associated with anthropogenic climate change and increasing climate variability. Specifically, morphological differences such as increased root and reduced leaf mass, and physiological differences such as more oleoresin production, could make slower growing, CS forests more resilient to catastrophic episodic mortality compared to more NCS stands under certain circumstances. General circulation models suggest that climate variability will increase in the future. Therefore, the occurrence of slow growth, CS forest stands out surviving faster growing NCS less stressed stands may become more common place, and eventually lead to “The Age of the Mediocre Forest”. This paper addresses the type of environmental conditions that could create such an inverse in forest health conditions, and the implications that this shift might have in forest genetics and management.     

Analysis of potential impacts of climate change on forests of the United States Pacific Northwest

As global climate changes over the next century, forest productivity is expected to change as well. Using PRISM climate and productivity data measured on a grid of 3356 plots, we developed a simultaneous autoregressive (SAR) model to estimate the impacts of climate change on potential productivity of Pacific Northwest (PNW) forests of the United States. Productivity, measured by projected potential mean annual increment (PMAI) at culmination, is explained by the interaction of annual temperature, precipitation, and precipitation in excess of evapotranspiration through the growing season. By utilizing information regarding spatial error in the SAR model, the resulting spatial bias is reduced thereby improving the accuracy of the resulting maps. The model, coupled with climate change output from four generalized circulation models, was used to predict the productivity impacts of four different scenarios derived from the fourth IPCC special report on emissions, representing different future economic and environmental states of the world, viz., scenario A1B, A2, B1 (low growth, high economic development and low energy usage), and COMMIT. In these scenarios, regional average temperature is expected to increase from 0.5 to 4.5 °C, while precipitation shows no clear trend over time. For the west and east side of the Cascade Mountains, respectively, PMAI increases: 7% and 20% under A1B scenario; 8% and 23% under scenario A2; 5% and 15% under scenario B1, and 2% and 5% under the COMMIT scenario. These projections should be viewed as potential changes in productivity, since they do not reflect the mitigating effects of any shifts in management or public policy. For managers and policy makers, the results suggest the relative magnitude of effects and the potential variability of impacts across a range of climate scenarios.     

不同森林经营措施对木材产量和碳储量的影响

在应对全球气候变化中, 林业具有特殊地位和重要功能, 以社会、经济和环境可持续发展为目标的森林可持续经营是全球趋势。文中阐述了森林在减缓和适应气候变化中的独特作用; 重点分析了不同营林措施对木材产量和碳储量的影响, 并结合可持续林业的发展趋势评价了不同经营模式框架下木材产量与碳储量之间的平衡; 针对全球气候变化对森林生态系统带来的挑战, 探讨了今后森林经营措施的研究重点和难点, 旨在为制定合理的经营方案提供理论依据。     

Scenario analysis of the impacts of forest management and climate change on the European forest sector carbon budget

Analysis of the impacts of forest management and climate change on the European forest sector carbon budget between 1990 and 2050 are presented in this article. Forest inventory based carbon budgeting with large scale scenario modelling was used. Altogether 27 countries and 128.5 million hectare of forests are included in the analysis. Two forest management and climate scenarios were applied. In Business as Usual (BaU) scenario national fellings remained at the 1990 level while in Multifunctional (MultiF) scenario fellings increased 0.5–1% per year until 2020, 4 million hectare afforestation program took place between 1990 and 2020 and forest management paid more attention to current trends towards more nature oriented management. Mean annual temperature increased 2.5 °C and annual precipitation 5–15% between 1990 and 2050 in changing climate scenario. Total amount of carbon in 1990 was 12 869 Tg, of which 94% in tree biomass and forest soil, and 6% in wood products in use. In 1995–2000, when BaU scenario was applied under current climatic conditions, net primary production was 409 Tg C year⁻¹, net ecosystem production 164 Tg C year⁻¹, net biome production 84.5 Tg C year⁻¹, and net sequestration of the whole system 87.4 Tg C year⁻¹ which was equal to 7–8% of carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion in 1990. Carbon stocks in tree biomass, soil and wood products increased in all applied management and climate scenarios, but slower after 2010–2020 than that before. This was due to ageing of forests and higher carbon densities per unit of forest land. Differences in carbon sequestration were very small between applied management scenarios, implying that forest management should be changed more than in this study if aim is to influence carbon sequestration. Applied climate scenarios increased carbon stocks and net carbon sequestration compared to current climatic conditions.     

Assessing vulnerability of forests to climate change in South Korea

This study demonstrated a framework to assess vulnerability of forests to climate change. We focused on how alterations of temperature and precipitation might affect forest type distributions and carbon-related functions. In particular, our framework considered three sectors of forest type distribution, net primary production, and soil carbon storage. Future projections were derived from mechanistic models for South Korean forests under the A1B scenarios of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Forest type distributions were simulated by the Hydrological and thermal analogy group model, while the MAPSS and CENTURY1 models estimated forest carbon flux/storage. We quantified normalized vulnerability indices for each sector. Our results indicate that the overall vulnerability of forest type distribution is greater in the west central regions and southeastern inlands. The vulnerabilities of carbon flux/storage show that net primary production of South Korean forests is relatively less susceptible to climate change, but a highly vulnerable area of soil carbon storage mainly spreads from the west central to the south east region. The spatio-temporal vulnerability map with a synoptic overview from this study might be useful for policy makers in preparing adaptive measures and identifying management priorities.     

Assessment of logging moratorium using analytical network process in Iranian Hyrcanian forests

The aim of this research is to evaluate three forthcoming scenarios (continuing of forest management plans, logging ban, and forest management plans halt) in terms of policy change and select the best method based on sustainable forest management strategies in Iranian Hyrcanian forests. For this propose a two-layer evaluation process was considered for choosing the best alternative. Analytic network process as a decision approach is applied with Benefit–Opportunity–Cost–Risk (BOCR) merit. The data were obtained either from the previous research or through questionnaires. The results indicated that the benefits and risks were more important in terms of decision-making, compared to the opportunities and costs. Finally, the scenario of ‘continuity of forest management plans’ was selected as the most suitable alternative. The decision framework proposed in this study offers a rational means for decision-making of forest policy.     

Effect of climate change and nitrogen deposition on central-European forests: Regional-scale simulation for South Bohemia

The simulation of forest production until 2100 under different environmental scenarios and current management practices was performed using a process-based model BIOME-BGC previously parameterized for the main Central-European tree species: spruce, pine, beech and oak and adapted to include forest management practices. Climatic scenario HadCM3 used in the simulations was taken from the IPCC database created within the 3rd Assessment Report. It was combined with a scenario of CO₂ concentration development and a scenario of N deposition. The control scenario considered no changes of climatic characteristics, CO₂ concentration and N deposition. Simulation experiment was performed for the test region - South Bohemia - using a 1 km × 1 km grid. The actual data on the regional forest cover were aggregated for each grid cell in such a way that each cell represented an even-aged single-dominant species stand or non-forested area, and a standard management scenario depending on the stand age and species was applied to each cell. The effect of environmental variables was estimated as the difference of simulated carbon pools and fluxes in 2050 under environmental changes and under control scenario.The model simulation for the period to 2050 with only climate change under constant CO₂ concentration and N deposition indicated a small decrease of NPP (median values by species reached −0.9 to −1.7% for different species), NBP (−0.3 to −1.7%) and vegetation carbon (−0.3 to −0.7%), whereas soil C slightly increased. Separate increase of N deposition gave small positive effect on carbon pools (0.8-2.9% for wood C and about 0.5% for soil C) and more expressed effect on carbon fluxes (1.8-4.3% for NPP and 1.0-9.7% for NBP). Separate increase of CO₂ concentration lead to 0.6-2.4% increase of wood C pool and 0.1-0.5% increase of soil C. The positive effects of CO₂ concentration and N deposition were more pronounced for coniferous than for deciduous stands.Replacement of 0.5% of coniferous plantations every year by natural broadleaved stands evoked 10.5% of increase of wood carbon pool due to higher wood density of beech and oak compared to spruce and pine, but slightly decreased soil and litter carbon pools.     

Carbon balance of forest stands,wood products and their utilization in South Korea

Forests provide wood products and feedstock for bioenergy and bio-based products that can mitigate climate change by reducing carbon emissions. In order to assess the effects of forest products on reducing carbon emissions, we analyzed the carbon balance for individual carbon pools across the forest supply chain over a long period of time. We simulated particular forest supply chain activities pertaining to even-aged management of pine stands in South Korea to demonstrate our methods. Two different rotation scenarios (i.e., 40 and 70 years) were assessed over the 280-year time horizon in terms of temporal changes in carbon stock in each carbon pool along the supply chain, carbon transfer between carbon pools, substitution effects, and delayed carbon release by wood products. We found that the average carbon stock level was higher for the 70-year rotation scenario, but the total amount of gain in carbon was higher for the 40-year rotation at the end of the time horizon. This study confirms that forest products and energy feedstock can both reduce carbon emissions and increase carbon storage. However, the complexity of carbon accounting along the supply chain warrants a thorough evaluation from diverse perspectives when it is used to assess forest carbon management options.     

From the Editor

Abstract

For the calculation of carbon balance, estimates of litterfall are needed as a measure of carbon accumulation into soil. Estimation of litterfall should reflect the structural and functional properties of stands that are affected by changes in growing conditions caused, for example, by management activities or climate change. In this context, possibilities taking into account this dynamic relationship between growing conditions and litterfall were analysed by correlating litterfall with growth of trees. As extensive data for modelling this relationship are difficult to obtain, existing literature were analysed to formulate a general model applicable to forestry scenario modelling in practical forest planning under varying conditions. Empirical results from the literature were analysed to ascertain how litterfall is related to the structural and functional properties of tree stands, including the volume growth of stemwood. Further analysis related tree-level growth to litterfall for forest scenario modelling purposes. Data from the literature showed a clear relationship between forest growth and litterfall, and a tree-level linear model was estimated.     

Integrated methodology to assess windthrow impacts on forest stands under climate change

Storms have a high potential to cause severe ecological and economic losses in forests. We performed a logistic regression analysis to create a storm damage sensitivity index for North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, based on damage data of the storm event “Kyrill”. Future storm conditions were derived from two regional climate models. We combined these measures to an impact metric, which is embedded in a broader vulnerability framework and quantifies the impacts of winter storms under climate change until 2060. Sensitivity of forest stands to windthrow was mainly driven by a high proportion of coniferous trees, a complex orography and poor quality soils. Both climate models simulated an increase in the frequency of severe storms, whereby differences between regions and models were substantial. Potential impacts will increase although they will vary among regions with the highest impacts in the mountainous regions. Our results emphasise the need for combining storm damage sensitivity with climate change signals in order to develop forest protection measures.     

A management planning system for even-aged and uneven-aged forests in northeast China

The most common scientific approach to numerical landscape-level forest management planning is combinatorial optimization aimed at finding the optimal combination of the treatment alternatives of stands. The selected combination of treatments depends on the conditions of the forest, and the objectives of the forest landowners. A two-step procedure is commonly used to derive the plan. First, treatment alternatives are generated for the stands using an automated simulation tool. Second,the optimal combination of the simulated treatment schedules is found by using mathematical programming or various heuristics. Simulation of treatment schedules requires models for stand dynamics and volume for all important tree species and stand types present in the forest.A forest planning system was described for Northeast China. The necessary models for stand dynamics and tree volume were presented for the main tree species of the region. The developed models were integrated into the simulation tool of the planning system. The simulation and the optimization tools of the planning system were described. The optimization tool was used with heuristic methods, making it possible to easily solve also spatial forest planning problems, for instance aggregate cuttings.Finally, the use of the system is illustrated with a case study, in which nonspatial and spatial management plans are developed for the Mengjiagang Forest District.