Effects of Sucrose Ester,Dough Conditioner,and Storage Temperature on Long‐Term Textural Stability of Shelf‐Stable Bread

The effectiveness of a dough conditioner containing an amylase enzyme, surfactants, and a reducing compound on preserving the textural stability of shelf‐stable bread was compared with that of sucrose ester. Military‐specification Meal, Ready‐to‐Eat bread was formulated to contain sucrose ester alone, the dough conditioner alone, both in combination, or neither additive. Samples were also stored at 4, 21, and 38°C for 12 weeks. Instrumental texture, as determined by uniaxial compression and mathematically fitted stress‐strain relationships, and sensory texture, as determined by a trained texture panel, were assessed periodically between 0 and 12 weeks. Both sucrose ester and the dough conditioner yielded stored samples that were softer than the control; sucrose ester was slightly more effective than the dough conditioner in preserving instrumental texture, and the additive combination yielded the lowest firmness parameters. Thermal analysis results were consistent with mechanical and sensory evaluations in showing slightly increased recrystallization of starch in the noadditive formulation. Panelists perceived the samples containing sucrose ester to be much closer to an “ideal” texture compared with those containing the dough conditioner. A partial substitution of the lower cost dough conditioner for higher cost sucrose ester may be possible.     

Textural Optimization of Shelf‐Stable Bread: Effects of Glycerol Content and Dough‐Forming Technique

The effects of glycerol content and dough‐forming method on the physical, textural, and sensory characteristics of shelf‐stable bread were determined. Bread dough was produced with 0, 2, 4, and 6% nominal glycerol content, and formed into rolls by either dough‐dividing or extrusion‐forming methodologies. Baked products were evaluated by uniaxial compression and fitting of stress‐strain data to a three‐parameter mathematical model. A trained sensory panel quantified textural attributes using magnitude estimation methodology. Selected characteristics were also judged by an untrained consumer panel. Sensoryinstrumental relationships were determined. Products were tested instrumentally after different storage intervals to determine effects of glycerol level and dough‐forming process on degree of firming. Results showed that extrusion‐forming produced, on average, relatively more dense and less deformable products than did the dough‐dividing method; extrusionformed samples also had greater sensory firmness and were less similar to an ideal sensory texture. However, high glycerol concentrations in extrusion‐formed products gave sensory profiles that were substantially closer to the ideal. Sensory firmness and chewiness were closely correlated with parameters of power law functions that described compression behavior. Glycerol reduced ultimate firmness after storage.     

Textural Stability of Intermediate‐Moisture Extrudates: Effects of Formulation

Effects of formulation on the textural stability of intermediate‐moisture, flour‐based, “jerky”‐type extrudates were assessed. Potato‐based extrudates containing various particulate‐meat concentrations and different plasticizers (sucrose, fructose, glycerol, and glucose) were produced and subjected to accelerated storage for three weeks. The elastic modulus of the samples was measured before storage and then weekly. The relative fluidity and moisture mobility of the specimens were assessed by dynamic mechanical spectrometry (DMS), electron spin resonance (ESR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Samples were also evaluated by fluorometry and X‐ray diffraction to determine the extent of browning reaction and degree of molecular ordering, respectively. While elastic modulus increased appreciably during storage, firming was progressively reduced by entrained meat content and also by plasticizers, especially glycerol; plasticized and meat‐containing samples had correspondingly lower tan δ peak temperatures as measured by DMS. Textural results were also in keeping with fluidity and local viscosity as assessed by ESR measurements. NMR T1 relaxation values, reflecting moisture mobility, increased during storage. Diffraction spectra were consistent with published observations of hydrated starch, suggesting that water may have been released due to increased association of proteinaceous constituents. Fluorescence measurements confirmed moderate Maillard browning in all samples and significant chlorogenic browning in glucose‐containing samples, although these effects were unrelated to degree of firming. It was concluded that textural stability was optimized by interruption of the matrix by dispersed meat or by plasticization by low molecular weight constituents.     

Effect of Glutamate Accumulation During Sourdough Fermentation with Lactobacillus reuteri on the Taste of Bread and Sodium‐Reduced Bread

NaCl is an important contributor to the taste and texture of bread; therefore, it is challenging to reduce NaCl in bread without compromising quality. This study investigated sensory properties of bread with sourdough fermented with Lactobacillus reuteri accumulating glutamate or γ‐aminobutyrate (GABA). Sourdough was fermented with the GABA‐producing L. reuteri 100‐23 and LTH5448 as well as the glutamate‐accumulating L. reuteri 100‐23ΔgadB and TMW1.106. A consumer panel detected significant differences in the taste of bread with 6% addition of sourdough fermented with glutamate‐ or GABA‐producing L. reuteri. Remarkably, this difference was also detected when GABA‐producing L. reuteri 100‐23 was compared with its glutamate‐producing isogenic mutant L. reuteri 100‐23ΔgadB. The intensity of the salty taste of sourdough bread produced with 1% (flour basis) salt was equivalent to the intensity of the salty taste of reference bread produced with 1.5% salt. A trained panel found that sourdough breads (1 or 2% NaCl flour base) had a higher sour and umami taste intensity when compared with reference bread with the same salt content. Bread produced with sourdough fermented with L. reuteri 100‐23ΔgadB consistently had a higher umami taste intensity when compared with other sourdough breads. Neither sourdough addition nor NaCl level influenced bread volume or texture. In conclusion, the use of sourdough fermented with glutamate‐accumulating lactobacilli allowed reduction of NaCl without adverse effects on the taste or other quality attributes of bread.     

Staling of Bread: Role of Amylose and Amylopectin and Influence of Starch‐Degrading Enzymes

The present investigation aims at understanding the mechanism of bread firming during staling. Changes in the starch fraction due to the addition of amylases and their influence on the texture of bread crumb were studied during aging and after rebaking of stale bread. Pan bread was prepared by a conventional baking procedure. The influence of three different starch‐degrading enzymes, a conventional α‐amylase, a maltogenic α‐amylase, and a β‐amylase were investigated. The mechanical properties of bread were followed by uniaxial compression measurements. The microstructure was investigated by light microscopy, and starch transformations were assessed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and wide‐angle X‐ray powder diffraction. Firming of bread crumb and crystallization of starch are not necessarily in agreement in systems with added amylases. Reorganization of both starch fractions, amylopectin and amylose, and the increase of starch network rigidity due to increase of polymer order are important during aging. Starch‐degrading enzymes act by decreasing the structural strength of the starch phase; for instance, by preventing the recrystallization of amylopectin or by reducing the connectivity between crystalline starch phases. On the other hand, starch‐degrading enzymes may also promote the formation of a partly crystalline amylose network and, by this, contribute to a kinetic stabilization of the starch network. Based on the results, a model for bread staling is proposed, taking into account the biphasic nature of starch and the changes in both the amylose and amylopectin fraction.     

Effect of Health Information on Consumer Acceptability of Bread Fortified with β‐Glucan and Effect of Fortification on Bread Quality

Fortifying bread with β‐glucan reduces bread sensorial properties, though fortification using β‐glucan concentrates of low solubility under the conditions of dough preparation has not been investigated. This study investigated the consumer acceptability and purchase intent of bread fortified with a less soluble β‐glucan concentrate at levels corresponding to 0, 0.75, and 1.5 g β‐glucan/serving bread in relation to the provision of health information, gender, and whole wheat bread consumption. The effect of β‐glucan concentration on the physical properties of the bread produced under pilot plant settings was also investigated. β‐Glucan addition decreased (P < 0.05) loaf volume, increased firmness, and produced a darker, redder bread (P < 0.05), though fortification at 1.5 g β‐glucan/serving bread decreased height as well (P < 0.05). Consumer evaluation (n = 122) revealed that health information increased liking of appearance, flavor, and overall acceptability of the 1.5 g/serving bread to levels similar to or exceeding that of the control. Liking of the 1.5 g β‐glucan/serving bread appearance increased more in women than in men and for consumers who regularly consumed whole wheat bread for perceived health benefits when β‐glucan health information was provided. The provision of β‐glucan health information may be the key to increasing consumer acceptability of bread fortified with β‐glucan.     

Evaluation of Textural and Structural Properties of Barbari Bread During Storage

This study was performed using three Barbari flours (strong, medium, and weak) with different physical, chemical, and rheological properties. Determination of texture firmness of Barbari breads (A, B, and C, made of strong, medium, and weak flours, respectively) during storage was carried out with a texture analyzer and evaluating the bread crumb properties and changes during storage with a nondestructive ultrasonic technique. The bread microstructure was assessed with scanning electron microscopy, and the general process of starch gelatinization and retrogradation was evaluated with differential scanning calorimetry. The bread sensory properties were evaluated by 10 trained panelists. Barbari A, made from strong flour, had less firmness, lower transition of ultrasonic wave velocity, lower value of elastic modulus, reduced value of enthalpy, lower average temperature, larger pore diameter and area of images, and higher point total in sensory evaluation than Barbari B and Barbari C, particularly the latter, as storage time progressed. Barbari A's desirable quality characterization and longer shelf life were owing to the qualities of the flour, which enabled the production of dough with the appropriate properties. Eventually, the results of device‐based and sensory tests were significantly correlated. Ultrasonic nondestructive testing is recommended over other methods for assessing the texture, cell structure, and elastic properties of bread after baking and during storage, because it is fast, nondestructive, and less expensive than other methods and can be used during production.     

不同质地土壤对烤烟地上部生长动态的影响

不同质地土壤的烤烟叶片品质有差异,探明造成这种烟叶品质差异的烤烟地上部生长动态,可以为不同土壤质地条件下烤烟栽培措施的提出和完善提供依据。2012年选取不同质地土壤:砂质壤土、粉砂质黏土和壤土,以烤烟品种NC89为试验材料开展试验。结果表明:砂质壤土处理的烤烟株高较大、茎围较小,地上部干重较小,地上部干重和叶片淀粉积累速率较低但积累时间长,叶片色素含量显著高于其他两个处理,色素降解速率较低;壤土处理的地上部干重和叶片淀粉含量较高,干重积累速率较高而淀粉积累速率在生长前期较高;粉砂质黏土处理在生长初期叶片色素含量较高,但色素降解速率也高,成熟期叶片色素含量较低,淀粉含量在成熟期显著高于其他两个处理。砂质壤土处理烤烟叶片的品质最好,粉砂质黏土烤烟叶片的品质不佳。烤烟在株高不超过120 cm,茎围不超过12 cm的前提下,地上部干重和叶片淀粉积累速率较低但积累时间较长,同时叶片色素含量在成熟期稍高有利于优质烤烟的形成。     

Starch Hydrolyzing Enzymes for Retarding the Staling of Rice Bread

Previous attempts have been made to obtain gluten‐free bread of acceptable quality for bread specific volume and crumb texture. Rice bread is a good alternative to celiac patients, but it has a very rapid staling during storage. Rice starch is more prone to retrograde during storage than wheat starch, and the special hydrophobic nature of the rice proteins requires specific enzymes to be used in the rice bread process. To retard rice bread staling, two different starch hydrolyzing enzymes (α‐amylase of intermediate thermostability and cyclodextrin glycoxyl transferase [CGTase]) have been tested and their effect on fresh bread quality and staling during storage has been evaluated. The addition of α‐amylase improved bread specific volume and crumb firmness but very sticky textures were obtained. The addition of CGTase produced even higher specific volume and similar crumb firmness with better texture. Both enzymes decreased the ability of amylopectin to retrograde during storage. The firming kinetic was lowered by the α‐amylase but not the limiting firmness, while the rice crumb from CGTase firmed quickly with a very short range of firmness increase. Results revealed that the starch hydrolysis brought about by the α‐amylase was not sufficient to retard staling. CGTase was considered a better antistaling agent because of its starch hydrolyzing and cyclizing activity.     

Effect of Added Asparagine and Glycine on Acrylamide Content in Yeast‐Leavened Bread

Effect of added asparagine and glycine on acrylamide content in yeast‐leavened bread was studied in a designed experiment. Added asparagine strongly increased acrylamide content in the breads, while added glycine decreased the content. The more asparagine in the dough, the stronger was the reducing effect of glycine. When glycine was applied on the surface of the fermented dough, there was also a significant reduction of acrylamide content in the bread. Addition of glycine but not asparagine caused an increased browning reaction during baking.     

Effect of Parboiling on Milling,Physicochemical, and Textural Properties of Medium‐ and Long‐Grain Germinated Brown Rice

Germinated brown rice is considered a more nutritious and palatable cooked product than conventional brown rice. However, germination usually decreases rice milling yield and alters some physicochemical properties. Parboiling is commonly used to increase milling yield and retain nutrients, but it also changes rice color and texture. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of parboiling on milling, physicochemical, and textural properties of a medium‐grain and a long‐grain rice after germination at varying durations. Germinated rice samples of three germination durations were prepared with one germination time before the optimum time at which 70% of rice revealed hull protrusion, the optimum time, and one time after. Germinated rice was then immediately parboiled at 120°C for 20 min and was then immediately dried. The milling, physicochemical, and textural properties of parboiled germinated rice from both cultivars were determined. Parboiling significantly decreased the percentage of brokens, whiteness, and the apparent amylose content and increased γ‐aminobutyric acid content (GABA) in the nongerminated rice and rice at the first germination duration for both cultivars. Parboiling reduced pasting viscosities for both cultivars, but Jupiter still exhibited higher pasting viscosities than Wells. Cooked parboiled germinated rice was overall softer than nonparboiled rice because of kernel splitting, but Wells remained harder and less sticky than Jupiter. In conclusion, it is beneficial to combine parboiling with germination to enhance nutritional values and improve milling properties without affecting textural properties for both rice cultivars.     

Textural and Bile Acid‐Binding Properties of Muffins Impacted by Oat β‐Glucan with Different Molecular Weights

Water‐soluble β‐glucan (BG) extracted from a high‐BG oat line was treated with different amounts of lichenase (1→3)(1→4)‐β‐d ‐glucanase) enzyme to yield three different molecular weight (MW) BG extracts. Low (LMW‐BG, 157,000), medium (MMW‐BG, 277,000), and high (HMW‐BG, 560,000) MW BG extracts were added to plain muffin formulations at a level of 0.52% (0.42% in the batter, 0.52% in the resultant muffins) to investigate the effect of MW of BG on textural and bile acid (BA) binding properties of the muffins. In addition, treatments were prepared containing LMW‐BG, MMW‐BG, and HMW‐BG extracts in amounts providing equivalent batter firmness as determined on a texture analyzer. Resultant BG concentrations (and per serving amounts) of these muffins were 1.36% (0.81 g/60 g muffin), 1.05% (0.63 g/60 g muffin), and 0.52% (0.31 g/60 g muffin), respectively; thus, the LMW treatment complied with a U.S. Food and Drug Administration health claim requiring 0.75 g of BG per serving. The firmness, springiness, and BA‐binding capacity of the muffins were unaffected by the MW of BG. However, when added at the maximum limit for equivalent batter firmness, the LMW treatment was more firm and less springy than the HMW treatment. Furthermore, BA‐binding capacities of LMW and MMW fractions tended to be greater than that of the HMW fraction when added at the maximum limit. These results add further evidence to the importance of fine‐tuning BG structure to provide maximum health benefits while maintaining high product quality.     

不同氮肥处理对土壤和番茄中稳定性氮同位素丰度的影响

采用盆栽番茄的方式,根据氮肥类型和施用量,设置8种肥料处理（以纯氮计）：C1（有机肥,9.5g）、CU1（有机肥、化肥均为4.75g）、U1（化肥,9.5g）、C2（有机肥,19g）、CU2（有机肥、化肥均为9.5g）、U2（化肥,19g）、C3（有机肥,29g）、CK（不施肥料）,分析各处理的土壤、番茄叶片和果实δ15N的变化,比较不同部位δ15N的差异.结果表明,（1）施用有机肥能显著提高土壤、叶片和果实的δ15N（P ＜0.05）,而施用化肥则显著降低其δ15N（P＜0.05）.纯有机肥（C1、C2、C3）处理番茄叶片和果实δ15N分别为6.02‰ ～ 12.75‰和4.69‰～8.24‰,纯化肥（U1、U2）处理为2.83‰～5.53‰和2.66‰ ～4.50‰,纯有机肥处理δ15N显著高于纯化肥处理.（2）番茄植株不同部位δ15N的比较结果为老叶＞新叶＞新茎＞果实＞老茎＞侧根＞主根,表明氮素由根部吸收经过茎的运输到达叶片和果实的过程中,15N逐步富集.（3）建议将利用氮稳定同位素技术鉴别番茄果实纯有机肥和纯化肥处理的δ15N的阈值设定为5‰,有机种植检测可以借鉴此法设定相应的临界值,以鉴别有机种植和非有机种植.研究结果表明通过氮稳定同位素技术可以区分植物中氮素的来源,从而得知作物生长过程中的施肥情况,为有机食品检测提供有效方法.     

Effect of Different Wheat Classes and Their Flour Milling Streams on Textural Properties of Flour Tortillas

Wheat flour tortillas were made from flour streams of three wheat cultivars: Jagger hard red winter wheat, 4AT-9900 hard white winter wheat, and Ernie soft red winter wheat. Wheat samples were milled on a Miag experimental mill. Twelve flour streams and one straight-grade flour were obtained. Tortillas were made from each flour stream and the straightgrade flour by the hot-press method. Tortilla stretchability and foldability were evaluated by a texture analyzer and six panelists, respectively. Flour protein and water absorption affected tortilla texture. The foldability evaluated by panelists was positively correlated with flour protein content, farinograph water absorption, and damaged starch (P < 0.05). The 2BK and 3BK streams of hard wheat produced tortillas with strong stretchability and good foldability. Middling streams of hard wheat yielded tortillas with lighter color and less stretchability. Under the conditions tested in this study, soft wheat flours were not good for producing flour tortillas.     

Centrifuged Liquid and Breadmaking Properties of Frozen‐and‐Thawed Bread Dough

Breadmaking properties (bread height, mm, and specific volume, cm³/g ) showed marked deterioration when bread dough was frozen and stored at ‐20°C for one day. However, these properties of bread dough baked after storage for three to six days were not further deteriorated as compared with that baked after one day of storage. A large amount of liquid was oozed from the frozen‐and‐thawed bread dough. The liquid was separated from the bread dough by centrifugation (38,900 × g for 120 min at 4°C), and collected by tilting the centrifuge tube at an angle of 45° for 30 min. There was a strong correlation between the amount of centrifuged liquid and breadmaking properties (bread height and specific volume). The mechanism responsible for the oozing of liquid in frozen‐and‐ thawed bread dough was studied. The presence of yeast and salt in bread dough was suggested to be closely related to the amount of centrifuged liquid, and fermented products particularly had a large effect on the amount of centrifuged liquid.     

Volatile Compounds in Crumb of Whole‐Meal Wheat Bread Fermented with Different Yeast Levels and Fermentation Temperatures

The influence of fermentation temperatures (8, 16, and 32°C) and yeast levels (2, 4, and 6%) on the formation of volatile compounds in the crumb of whole‐meal wheat bread was investigated. Volatile compounds were extracted by dynamic headspace extraction and analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Results were evaluated with multivariate data analysis and ANOVA. Bread fermented at a high temperature (32°C) had higher peak areas of the Maillard reaction products 2‐furancarboxaldehyde, 2‐acetylfuran, 2‐methylpyrazine, and phenylacetaldehyde compared with bread fermented at lower fermentation temperatures. Bread fermented at low temperatures (8 and 16°C) was characterized by having higher peak areas of the fermentation products 3‐methylbutanal, 2‐methylbutanal, ethyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl propanoate, and 3‐methylbutanol. Fermentation of bread with 6% yeast resulted in a higher peak area of the important fermentation product 2‐phenylethanol. It also reduced the peak areas of important lipid oxidation products. The peak area of 2,3‐butanedione was also relatively higher in bread fermented with 6% yeast compared with lower yeast levels; however, an interaction was seen between the high yeast level and all three fermentation temperatures. In contrast, fermentation with a low yeast level (2%) resulted in bread with relatively higher peak areas of 2‐ and 3‐methylbutanal, as well as (E)‐2‐nonenal and (E,E)‐2,4‐decadienal, which are important lipid oxidation compounds in bread.     

Influence of Added Enzymes and Bran Particle Size on Bread Quality and Iron Availability

The aim of this investigation was to study the influence of different bran proportions and particle sizes, addition of fungal phytase, and α‐amylase addition on bread quality and phytate levels, and how these treatments affect availability of iron to intestinal epithelial (Caco‐2) cells. Potential mineral contributions to dietary reference intakes and phytate‐to‐mineral molar ratios were also evaluated. Wheat bran supplementation significantly affected bread quality. Smaller bran particle size affected crumb firmness negatively, whereas the use of α‐amylase, in some cases in combination with phytase, could improve technological bread quality. The use of phytase in the formulation significantly reduced the level of phytates, and phytate hydrolysis also led to smaller bran particle size. Increasing the bran proportion used in the bread formulation increased the iron concentration in bread samples by 18.9%. Phytase addition proved to be a useful strategy to improve iron dialyzability; however, incomplete dephytinization still had an inhibitory effect on iron uptake, with the exception of samples formulated with 10% bran. The inhibitory effect of phytate could be predicted from the values of the phytate‐to‐iron ratios. Reduction of particle size did not improve iron availability or uptake by Caco‐2 cells.     

Application of Polished‐Graded Wheat Grains for Sourdough Bread

Flours obtained by a specific polishing process were used to prepare sourdough and bread. Three fractions designated C‐1 (100–90%), C‐5 (60–50%), and C‐8 (30–0%) were studied. The pH, total titratable acidity levels, and buffering capacity of sourdoughs made from polished flours were significantly different from those of the control sourdough with No. 1 Canada Western Red Spring (CW), and they provided sourdough breads with better qualities than that of CW. The growth of lactic acid bacteria and yeast in polished flour sourdoughs were significantly accelerated during fermentation over that in CW sourdough. Higher maturation of polished flour sourdoughs softened the hardness of mixed dough. The intricate network of honeycomb structure gluten and uneven surface of starch granules were distinctly observed in SEM images. Substitutions of C‐5 or C‐8 sourdoughs for CW significantly increased the loaf volume and softened breadcrumbs more than CW sourdough. Flour qualities of polished flours such as suitable acidity and good buffering capacity caused by the bran fraction were effective for better growth and longer life of yeast in the dough during fermentation. Therefore, application of polished flours in sourdough bread would improve rheological properties of dough and bread as compared with CW sourdough.     

不同乳化剂对姜黄素乳液理化稳定性的影响

姜黄素具有许多生物活性功能,但较差的溶解度和稳定性限制了其在食品和医药领域的应用。为筛选出具有良好稳定性的姜黄素乳液,本研究以亚麻籽油为姜黄素的油相载体,经高压均质法制备出姜黄素乳液中研究卵磷脂、吐温-80、阿拉伯胶和乳清分离蛋白4种食品级乳化剂对姜黄素乳液的理化特性和贮藏稳定性的影响,从包埋率、浊度、粒径、电位等方面进行稳定性评价。结果表明,吐温-80稳定的姜黄素乳液中姜黄素包埋率较高(76.98%),浊度和平均粒径最小,分别为848.0 NTR、214.23±1.52 nm;同时在贮藏期内姜黄素乳液的平均粒径变化最小,增长不到1%,贮藏稳定性表现良好。同时,4℃低温条件下姜黄素保留率最高,达到88.02%。结果表明,选用吐温-80作为乳化剂,姜黄素乳液具有最好的溶解性和稳定性,这为今后姜黄素在食品工业中的广泛应用提供了新思路。