Alkylresorcinols in cereals and cereal products

The alkylresorcinol (AR) content of 8 commonly consumed cereals, 125 Triticum cultivars, milling fractions of wheat and rye, bread, and other cereal products was analyzed. ARs were found in wheat (489-1429 microgram/g), rye (720-761 microgram/g), triticale (439-647 microgram/g), and barley (42-51 microgram/g), but not in rice, oats, maize, sorghum, or millet. One durum wheat variety was found to have an exceptionally low level of ARs (54 microgram/g) compared to other durum wheat varieties (589-751 microgram/g) and Triticumspecies analyzed. The AR content of milling fractions closely followed the ash content and could be used as a marker of the presence of bran in flour. Using hot 1-propanol extraction, all ARs could be extracted from bread, contrary to previous studies which suggested that ARs were destroyed during baking. Cereal products varied greatly in AR content, with those containing wheat bran or whole rye having the highest content.     

Contents of phenolic acids, alkyl- and alkenylresorcinols, and avenanthramides in commercial grain products

The contents of free and total phenolic acids and alk(en)ylresorcinols were analyzed in commercial products of eight grains: oat (Avena sativa), wheat (Triticum spp.), rye (Secale cerale), barley (Hordeum vulgare), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), millet (Panicum miliaceum), rice (Oryza sativa), and corn (Zea mays). Avenanthramides were determined in three oat products. Free phenolic acids, alk(en)ylresorcinols, and avenanthramides were extracted with methanolic acetic acid, 100% methanol, and 80% methanol, respectively, and quantified by HPLC. The contents of total phenolic acids were quantified by HPLC analysis after alkaline and acid hydrolyses. The highest contents of total phenolic acids were in brans of wheat (4527 mg/kg) and rye (4190 mg/kg) and in whole-grain flours of these grains (1342 and 1366 mg/kg, respectively). In other products, the contents varied from 111 mg/kg (white wheat bread) to 765 mg/kg (whole-grain rye bread). Common phenolic acids found in the grain products were ferulic acid (most abundant), ferulic acid dehydrodimers, sinapic acid, and p-coumaric acid. The grain products were found to contain either none or only low amounts of free phenolic acids. The content of avenanthramides in oat flakes (26-27 mg/kg) was about double that found in oat bran (13 mg/kg). The highest contents of alk(en)ylresorcinols were observed in brans of rye (4108 mg/kg) and wheat (3225 mg/kg). In addition, whole-grain rye products (rye bread, rye flour, and whole-wheat flour) contained considerable levels of alk(en)ylresorcinols (524, 927, and 759 mg/kg, respectively).     

Effect of Cooking on Lignans Content in Whole‐Grain Pasta Made with Different Cereals and Other Seeds

Lignans are of increasing interest because of their potential anticarcinogenic, antioxidant, estrogenic, and antiestrogenic activities. In this work, mixed‐cereal pastas manufactured by adding 60% whole‐grain flours of different cereals (wheat, oat, rye, barley, and rice) to durum wheat semolina, a multigrain pasta with different grains (cereals, legumes, and flaxseed), and a traditional industrial durum wheat semolina were analyzed for their lignans content both in the raw and in the cooked state, ready for consumption. For raw mixed‐cereal pastas, total lignans were within the range 94.91–485.62 μg/100 g d.w. After cooking, total lignans losses of about 35.5, 18.31, and 5.46% were observed respectively in oat‐, rye‐, and rice‐added pastas, whereas increases of 5.74 and 13.62% were observed in barley‐added and whole durum wheat pastas. Interesting results were obtained for the multigrain pasta: the raw product exhibited a total lignans content of 9,686.17 ± 287.03 μg/100 g d.w., and the major contribution was given by secoisolariciresinol. This highest total lignans value resulted from its rich and varied composition in seeds of different origin, legumes, and flaxseed in particular. Our findings showed that mixed‐cereal and multigrain pastas can be considered a good source of lignans. The effect of cooking was not the same for each product, and it depended on the different lignans profile of each grain, on the different chemical structure of each lignan, and on the nature of the food matrix.     

Antioxidant activity and total phenolics in selected cereal grains and their different morphological fractions

The purpose of this study was to examine the antioxidant properties of water and 80% methanolic extracts of cereal grains and their different morphological fractions. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cv. Almari and cv. Henika, barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cv. Gregor and cv. Mobek, rye (Secale cereale L.) cv. Dańkowskie Zlote, oat (Avena sativa L.) cv. Slawko and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) cv. Kora were used. PC (L-alpha-phosphatidylcholine) liposome system and spectrophotometric assay of total antioxidant activity (TAA) were used to evaluate the antioxidative activity of extracts. Among the water extracts, only the one prepared from buckwheat exhibited antioxidant activity at the concentration analyzed. The following hierarchy of antioxidant activity was provided for 80% methanolic extracts originated from whole grain: buckwheat > barley > oat > wheat congruent with rye. The antioxidant activity was observed in extract prepared from separated parts of buckwheat and barley. In respect to hulls, the antioxidant hierarchy was as follows: buckwheat > oat > barley. The correlation coefficient between total phenolic compounds and total antioxidative activity of the extracts was -0.35 for water extracts and 0.96, 0.99, 0.80, and 0.99 for 80% methanolic extracts originated from whole grains, hulls, pericarb with testa fractions and endosperm with embryo fractions, respectively.     

Effects of zinc fertilization and irrigation on grain yield and zinc concentration of various cereals grown in zinc‐deficient calcareous soils

Effects of varied irrigation and zinc (Zn) fertilization (0, 7, 14, 21 kg Zn ha^‐1 as ZnSO₄7.H₂O) on grain yield and concentration and content of Zn were studied in two bread wheat (Triticum aestivum), two durum wheat (Triticum durum), two barley (Hordeum vulgare), two triticale (xTriticosecale Wittmark), one rye (Secale cereale), and one oat (Avena sativa) cultivars grown in a Zn‐deficient soil (DTPA‐extractable Zn: 0.09 mg kg^‐1) under rainfed and irrigated field conditions. Only minor or no yield reduction occurred in rye as a result of Zn deficiency. The highest reduction in plant growth and grain yield due to Zn deficiency was observed in durum wheats, followed by oat, barley, bread wheat and triticale. These decreases in yield due to Zn deficiency became more pronounced under rainfed conditions. Although highly significant differences in grain yield were found between treatments with and without Zn, no significant difference was obtained between the Zn doses applied (7–21 kg ha^‐1), indicating that 7 kg Zn ha^‐1 would be sufficient to overcome Zn deficiency. Increasing doses of Zn application resulted in significant increases in concentration and content of Zn in shoot and grain. The sensitivity of various cereals to Zn deficiency was different and closely related to Zn content in the shoot but not to Zn amount per unit dry weight. Irrigation was effective in increasing both shoot Zn content and Zn efficiency of cultivars. The results demonstrate the existence of a large genotypic variation in Zn efficiency among and within cereals and suggest that plants become more sensitive to Zn deficiency under rainfed than irrigated conditions.     

TAXI type endoxylanase inhibitors in different cereals

An affinity-based purification procedure with the immobilized family 11 Bacillus subtilis endoxylanase XynA allowed us to obtain high yields of highly pure endoxylanase inhibitor fractions from rye, barley, and durum wheat. In contrast, no inhibitors interacting with the B. subtilis endoxylanase affinity column are present in corn, buckwheat, rice, and oats. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis and inhibitor specificity showed that the isolated inhibitors belonged to the TAXI endoxylanase inhibitor family, thus providing a view on the diversity of this cereal inhibitor family. The isolated inhibitors are basic proteins of ca. 40 kDa, occurring in two molecular forms, with pI values of ca. 8.5 (durum wheat) and ca. 9.0 (rye, barley). They are, in general, strong inhibitors of family 11 endoxylanases but not of family 10 endoxylanases. Because cereal endogenous endoxylanases belong to the latter family, this probably indicates that they do not influence cereal metabolic processes. For the first time, endoxylanase inhibitors, similar to TAXI I and TAXI II from wheat, were isolated from durum wheat and characterized. For each cereal, high-resolution cation exchange chromatography revealed the presence of multiple isoinhibitors, each of which occurs in two molecular forms. However, in durum wheat and barley, a single isoform is predominantly present.     

Effects of Different Cereal Fibers on Cholesterol and Bile Acid Metabolism in the Syrian Golden Hamster

This study examined the effects of various cereal fibers and various amounts of β-glucan on cholesterol and bile acid metabolism. Hamsters were fed semisynthetic diets containing 0.12% cholesterol, 20% fat, and either 16% total dietary fiber (TDF) from wheat bran (control) or 10% TDF from oat bran, 13% TDF from oat bran concentrate or barley grains, 16% TDF from oat fiber concentrate, barley flakes, or rye bran. After five weeks, plasma total cholesterol and liver cholesterol concentrations were significantly lower (20 and 50%, respectively) only in hamsters fed rye bran. Diets containing any of the oat ingredients or barley had no effect on total cholesterol. Changes in the pattern of biliary bile acids occurred in hamsters fed 16% TDF from barley flakes or 10% TDF from oat bran. Hamsters fed rye bran had a significantly higher fecal bile acid excretion when compared with controls fed wheat bran. Because rye bran caused the most pronounced lowering effect of total cholesterol despite the lowest content of β-glucan and soluble fibers, components other than β-glucan and soluble fibers seem to be involved in its hypocholesterolemic action. Since the effects of the oat and barley ingredients were not solely correlated to the β-glucan content, structural changes occurring during processing and concentrating of the products may have impaired the hypocholesterolemic potential of the β-glucans, and other factors such as solubility and viscosity of the fiber components seem to be involved.     

Steryl phenolic acid esters in cereals and their milling fractions

The steryl ferulate contents of rye and wheat grains and their milling fractions were analyzed using a reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method. HPLC-mass spectrometry was used for identification. In addition, steryl ferulates of some selected milling byproducts were determined. The total steryl ferulate contents of rye and wheat grains were 6.0 and 6.3 mg/100 g, respectively. Uneven distribution of steryl ferulates in the grains led to considerable differences in the milling products; their steryl ferulate contents ranged from trace amounts in flours with low ash content to 20 and 34 mg/100 g in rye and wheat brans, respectively. Campestanyl ferulate and sitostanyl ferulate were the main components, followed by campesteryl ferulate and sitosteryl ferulate, whereas sitosterol was the main component in total sterols. Among the other samples, a byproduct of rice milling (pearling dust) was the best source of steryl ferulates, its total steryl ferulate content being 119 mg/100 g, whereas no measurable amounts of steryl ferulates were measured in oat bran or pearling dust of barley. The results indicated that rye and wheat and especially their bran fractions are comparable to corn as steryl ferulate sources.     

Proteolytic Enzymes in Germinating Rye Grains

The proteolytic activities during rye (Secale cereale L. ‘Humbolt’) grain germination were monitored using in‐solution methods and one‐ and two‐dimensional PAGE with gels that contained incorporated substrate proteins. The total proteolytic activity increased during the first three days of germination, but not after that. The proteinase activity was measured at pH 3.8, 6.0, and 8.0 in the presence and absence of class‐specific proteinase inhibitors. This indicated that enzymes from all four proteinase classes were present during the germination process. Germinated rye grain contained mainly aspartic and cysteine proteinase activities that are especially active at pH 3.8. Serine‐ and metallo‐proteinases were less abundant. Overall, the pattern of hydrolysis was very similar to that observed during barley and wheat germination.     

Polymorphism of Aspartic Proteinases in Resting and Germinating Barley Seeds

Both resting and germinated barley seeds (Hordeum vulgare L. ‘Morex’) contain aspartic endopeptidase activities, and the activities increase during germination. We have extracted and partially purified aspartic endopeptidases from both resting seeds and green malt (four-day germinated barley). Six aspartic proteinase activities were found in resting barley seeds while only four activities were detected in green malt. All of the aspartic proteinases had similar pH activity optima (pH 3.5–4.5) and pI values (≈4.5). The purified green malt aspartic proteinases selectively digested a group of barley seed proteins, postulated to serve as defensive proteins, that are coded by the amylase-trypsin inhibitor super gene family. The aspartic proteinases that bound to a pepstatin A affinity column at pH 4.5 cross-reacted with antiserum raised against aspartic proteinases purified from barley seed. However, those that did not bind the affinity column also did not cross-react with the antiserum, indicating that there are two distinct groups of aspartic proteases in germinating barley.     

Qualitative Zymographic Studies of Major Proteinases from Malted Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and Effects of Cultivar

Proteolysis during cereal germination is vital both to seedling growth and the success of commercial malting and brewing. In this study, proteinases in proteolytic extracts from seeds and germinated grains of 11 Botswana sorghum cultivars were analyzed and partially characterized by one‐dimensional electrophoresis on SDS‐PAGE gels containing incorporated gelatin. Proteinase polymorphism was detected in both germinated and ungerminated sorghum grains. Fifteen distinct proteinase bands, with M_r values of 27,000–100,000 were detected in sorghum malt extract, while ungerminated sorghum displayed a maximum of four bands (M_r ≈ 78,000–100,000). Band numbers and identity varied markedly according to cultivar. More proteinase bands were detected at pH 4.6, than at pH 6.2 and 7.0, suggesting pH optima considerably below neutrality. Cysteine‐proteinases constituted a higher proportion (9 of 15) of the detected sorghum malt proteinases and were most detectable at pH 4.6. Multiple representatives were also detected for both serine‐ and metallo‐proteinases, although these were more active at pH 6.2 and 7.0. 1‐10 Phenanthroline inhibited malt metallo‐proteinase more strongly than EDTA, suggesting that these enzymes were most probably zinc‐dependent. Aspartyl‐proteinases were not detected, probably because of the substrate employed. Results indicate that the sorghum proteinase system is complex.     

Characterization of Oat Endoproteinases that Hydrolyze Oat Avenins

During oat seed germination, the insoluble storage proteins must be solubilized and transported to the embryo for use by the developing plantlet. We showed earlier that pH 6.2 active serine and metalloproteinases were the predominant gelatin‐hydrolyzing enzymes of oats, while the oat globulins were degraded by pH 3.8 active cysteine proteases. The pH of the endosperms of germinating oats is 6.2. We have continued our characterization of the germinated oat proteinases by determining which hydrolyze avenins, the oat storage prolamins. Avenins of resting seeds were purified and hydrolyzed with proteinases that were extracted from oat seeds that were germinated for various periods. The peptides released were analyzed using SDS‐PAGE. The α‐avenins were hydrolyzed at pH 3.8 by cysteine proteinases from four‐day germinated seeds and the β‐avenins were hydrolyzed by similar enzymes from eight‐day germinated seeds. At pH 6.2 or pH 5.0, the avenins were not degraded by any of the germinated oats endoproteinases. It is probable that some kind of pH compartmentalization occurs within germinating oat seed. After four days of germination, either new proteinases form or some preexisting proteinases are activated. The cysteine proteinases are apparently responsible for the majority of the storage protein hydrolysis that occurs during oat germination.     

几种禾本科作物对铝的敏感性或耐性

通过调查几种禾本科作物根的伸长，根尖的铝含量、铝诱导其根系有机酸的分泌，探讨作物耐铝（铝敏感）性及作物对铝毒害的抵御机理。结果表明，水稻、黑麦是耐铝的作物，而大麦、小麦（Scout 66)是对铝敏感的作物，玉米和高梁对铝敏感性较小麦弱。小麦和玉米品种间对铝的敏感性差异显著，而高梁对铝的敏感性品种间差异性较小。铝能够诱导水稻、黑麦和耐铝的玉米及小麦品种的根系分泌柠檬酸和/或苹果酸。这表明铝诱导有机酸的分泌是它们抵御铝毒害的机理。     

In vitro digestion characteristics of unprocessed and processed whole grains and their components

Chemical composition and in vitro digestion properties of select whole grains, before and after processing, and their components were measured. Substrates included barley, corn, oat, rice, and wheat. In addition to whole grain flours, processed substrates also were tested as were corn bran, oat bran, wheat bran, and wheat germ. Processing of most substrates resulted in higher dry matter and digestible starch and lower resistant starch concentrations. Dietary fiber fractions varied among substrates with processing. Digestion profiles for most substrates correlated well with their chemical composition. Corn bran and rice substrates were the least fermentable. Extrusion rendered barley, corn, and wheat more hydrolytically digestible and barley and oat more fermentatively digestible. Except for corn bran, all components had greater or equal fermentability compared with their native whole grains. Understanding digestion characteristics of whole grains and their components will allow for more accurate utilization of these ingredients in food systems.     

Plant elemental composition and element ratio in some crops at the flowering stage

Abstract

The elemental composition of winter wheat, spring barley, oat, rye, buckwheat and potato at flowering stage as well as the molar ratio of elements to each other in these crops were determined. Presented is a new theoretical approach to fertilization based on the view that knowing the ratio of elements in crops at the flowering stage can be useful in determining the appropriate ratios of fertilizer components in plant nutrition and fertilization.     

Real-time polymerase chain reaction based assays for quantitative detection of barley, rice, sunflower, and wheat

Quality assurance is a major issue in the food industry. The authenticity of food ingredients and their traceability are required by consumers and authorities. Plant species such as barley (Hordeum vulgare), rice (Oryza sativa), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) are very common among the ingredients of many processed food products; therefore the development of specific assays for their specific detection and quantification are needed. Furthermore, the production and trade of genetically modified lines from an increasing number of plant species brings about the need for control within research, environmental risk assessment, labeling/legal, and consumers' information purposes. We report here the development of four independent real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays suitable for identification and quantification of four plant species (barley, rice, sunflower, and wheat). These assays target gamma-hordein, gos9, helianthinin, and acetyl-CoA carboxylase sequences, respectively, and were able to specifically detect and quantify DNA from the target plant species. In addition, the simultaneous amplification of RALyase allowed bread from durum wheat to be distinguished. Limits of detection were 1 genome copy for barley, sunflower, and wheat and 3.3 copies for rice real-time PCR systems, whereas limits of quantification were 10 genome copies for barley, sunflower, or wheat and approximately 100 haploid genomes for rice real-time PCR systems. Real-time PCR cycling conditions of the four assays were stated as standard to facilitate their use in routine laboratory analyses. The assays were finally adapted to conventional PCR for detection purposes, with the exception of the wheat assay, which detects rye simultaneously with similar sensitivity in an agarose gel.     

Reduced-Oxidized Glutathione Status as a Potential Index of Oxidative Stress in Mature Cereal Grain

The purpose of this study was to examine the reduced and oxidized glutathione status of selected cereal grains as a potential index of balance between oxidative stress and antioxidant systems, and the contribution of reduced glutathione to the total antioxidant status in cereal grain extracts. Wheat cultivars Almari and Henika, barley cultivars Gregor and Mobek, rye cultivar Dañkowskie Złote, oat cultivar Sławko, and buckwheat cultivar Kora were used. Total antioxidant status (TAS) was measured by the ABTS (2,2'-azinobis(3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulphonate)) method. Contents of total phenolic compounds were also determined. Reduced (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) (γ-glutamyl-cysteinyl-glycine) were assayed using the spectrofluorimetric method, and results were confirmed by the enzyme recycling method. Correlation coefficient for the GSH/GSSG ratio was r = 0.79. Correlation between TAS and the total phenolic compound content was r = 0.81. Correlation between GSH/GSSG ratio and TAS values was r= 0.46, depending on the extraction system used. The GSH/GSSG ratio may indicate a hierarchy among different cultivars and variance of cereal grains against damage caused by reactive oxygen species. For the main water-soluble antioxidants, our data indicate a potential hierarchy of resistance in investigated cereals against oxidative stress (buckwheat > wheat > barley ≈ rye > oat). This hierarchy was confirmed by the ability of investigated cereal extracts to scavenge superoxide anion radicals in vitro. The reduced-oxidized glutathione status in different cereal grains can be applied as a potential index of balance between oxidative stress and antioxidant systems.     

Calcium-binding capacities of different brans under simulated gastrointestinal pH conditions. In vitro study with (45)Ca

The present study was performed to investigate calcium-binding characteristics of different brans under simulated gastrointestinal pH conditions and to explore the significance of dietary fiber, oxalate, and phytate for calcium binding. Different brans (rice, rye, soy, fine wheat, coarse wheat, and oat) and CaCl(2) solution containing (45)Ca were incubated at 37 degrees C at gastric pH (2.2) followed by buffering steps of 1 degree from pH 3.0 to pH 8.0. Total calcium binding and calcium-binding capacity of the pH 2.2 soluble bran fraction were determined. Additionally, oxalate and phytate contents of brans and solubility profiles of phytic acid were investigated. Calcium-binding capacities of brans showed a clear pH dependence. At gastric pH calcium binding was low in all brans, ranging from 0.022 to 0.040 mmol of calcium/g of bran. Soy bran, nearly phytate-free, showed higher binding values up to pH 4.0 and lower values between pH 5.0 and 8.0. In all other brans, binding values increased strongly with increasing pH in the quantitative order rice bran > coarse wheat bran > fine wheat bran > rye bran > oat bran. The solubility profiles indicate that in the cases of rye, wheat, and rice bran phytate accounts for 70-82% of their total calcium-binding capacities. The results suggest that dietary fiber makes no important contribution to calcium binding, except for soy and oat brans. Oxalate plays only a minor role in calcium binding by brans.     

Alkylresorcinols in selected Polish rye and wheat cereals and whole-grain cereal products

The alkylresorcinol content and homologue composition in selected Polish rye and wheat cultivars and selected whole-grain cereal products were determined in this study. Cereal grains and whole-grain cereal products were extracted with acetone, whereas bread types were extracted with hot 1-propanol. The average alkylresorcinol content in tested rye (approximately 1100 mg/kg DM) and wheat (approximately 800 mg/kg DM) grains harvested in Poland was within the range previously reported in Swedish and Finnish samples. The total alkylresorcinol content in tested cereal products available on the Polish market varied from very low levels in barley grain-based foods up to 3000 mg/kg DM in wheat bran. The total alkylresorcinol content in 14 bread samples extracted with hot 1-propanol varied from approximately 100 mg/kg DM in whole bread made with honey up to approximately 650 mg/kg DM in whole-rye bread. Calculated ratios of C17:0 to C21:0 homologues, a useful parameter previously used to distinguish between rye and wheat cereals and their derived products, was about 1.2-1.4 in rye products, about 0.2 in wheat products, and varied between 0.2 and 0.6 in cereal-derived products containing a mixture of whole rye and/or wheat. The data set obtained were subsequently compared using cluster and principal component analysis, which allowed the tested cereal products to be classified into two major groups consisting of whole-rye or whole-wheat products, respectively. On the basis of that approach, mixed cereal products containing rye and wheat bran or whole rye and wheat flour were grouped between those two well-defined clusters. Our work not only provides a detailed examination of alkylresorcinols in selected Polish rye and wheat cultivars and selected whole-grain cereal products, but also demonstrates that this type of analysis accompanied by the use of proper statistical algorithms offers an objective way to evaluate the quality of whole-grain rye and/or wheat and their derived products.     

Studies on rye (Secale cereale L.) lines exhibiting a range of extract viscosities. 2. Rheological and baking characteristics of rye and rye/wheat blends and feeding value for chicks of wholemeals and breads

Five rye lines exhibiting a wide range of extract viscosities were evaluated for the rheological and baking properties of their flours, individually and in blends with hard red spring wheat flour. Commercial cultivars of rye and triticale were included in the study as controls. Extract viscosities of rye flours were higher than those of corresponding wholemeals, indicating shifting of water-extractable arabinoxylan into flour during roller milling. Falling numbers of the rye flours correlated positively with their extract viscosities in the presence (r = 0.73, p < 0.05) or absence (r = 0.65, p < 0.05) of an enzyme inhibitor. Farinograms revealed the weakness of rye and triticale flours compared to wheat flour. Extract viscosities of rye flours were negatively correlated (r = -0.65, p < 0.05) with mixing tolerance index and positively correlated (r = 0.64, p < 0.05) with dough stability, suggesting a positive impact of extract viscosity on dough strength. Extract viscosity was negatively correlated (r = -0.74, p < 0.05) with loaf volume and specific volume (r = -0.73, p < 0.05) and positively correlated (r = 0.73, p < 0.05) with loaf weight of rye/wheat bread. Overall, the results indicated that 30% of flour from high or low extract viscosity rye could be incorporated into rye/wheat breads without seriously compromising bread quality. Inclusion of rye, particularly high extract viscosity rye, in chick diets seriously impeded growth performance and feed efficiency. Part of the arabinoxylan survived bread-making and exerted an effect on chicks, although substantially lower digesta viscosities were observed in chicks fed rye bread diets than in those fed rye wholemeals.