Soil phosphorus management and water quality: a UK perspective

Abstract. An increasing proportion of P reaching surface waters appears to be derived from agricultural land; apportioning the relative contribution to particular farming systems is not straightforward. The majority of farms in the UK operate on the basis of an annual agricultural P surplus, the size of which varies across different farm types. Particularly high values (>20kg ha^-1) are commonly associated with intensive-livestock production and the lower values (<10kg P ha^-1) with arable farms. The geographical divide between the predominance of arable cropping in the east and livestock enterprises in the west of the UK should result in an uneven pattern to the distribution of annual P surplus. The expected cumulative effects of this surplus should be a noticeable increase in total and extractable soil P concentrations, but this is not readily apparent. While evidence from experimental plots suggests a relationship between the concentration of available soil P and that present in drainage waters, extrapolating this information so that it can be useful at the scale of a whole catchment is difficult. The loss of P from agricultural land is controlled by factors which are independent of the size of the annual P surplus. The pattern of P cycling, together with the dominant loss pathways, differ greatly between livestock and arable farming systems. Proportioning the contributions that either increased soil erosion arising from changing agricultural practices or the cumulative effect of a P surplus have had upon P loss is a necessary prerequisite to effective management.     

Phosphorus and nitrogen turnover and risk of waterborne phosphorus emissions in crop rotations on a clay soil in southwest Sweden

Abstract. Nutrient losses from arable land are important contributors to eutrophication of surface waters, and phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) usually act together to regulate production of Cyanobacteria. Concentrations and losses of both nutrients in drainage water from pipe drains were studied and compared in 15 crop rotations on a clay soil in southwest Sweden. Special emphasis was placed on P and it was possible to evaluate critical components of the crop rotations by flow-proportional water sampling. Total P concentrations in drainage water were generally small (0.04–0.18 mg L⁻¹), but during two wetter years out of six, high P concentrations were measured following certain management practices, including ploughing-in lucerne ( Medicago sativa L.) and fertilizing in advance without incorporation into the soil to meet the needs of several subsequent crops. This resulted in average flow-weighted concentrations of total P between 0.3 and 0.7 mg L⁻¹. In crop rotations containing green manures, green fallow or leguminous leys, there was also a risk for increased P losses after these crops were ploughed in. The losses increased in the order: cash crops < dairy with grass < dairy with lucerne < monoculture with barley < organic farming with cattle slurry < stockless organic farming with green manure. P balances varied between −9 and +8 kg P ha⁻¹ and N balances between +4 and +35 kg N ha⁻¹. The balances were not related to actual leaching losses. Phosphorus losses in drainage from set-aside were 67–82% of those from cash crops grown in ploughed and P-fertilized soil at the same site, indicating a high background P loss from this clay soil.     

Increased predicted losses of phosphorus to surface waters from soils with high Olsen-P concentrations

Abstract. Diffuse soluble reactive P (SRP) & total P (TP) loads from over 50 major river catchments in Northern Ireland were predicted using an export coefficient modelling approach. Phosphorus export coefficients for each CORINE land cover class, derived from satellite imagery, allowed the prediction of P loads from a breakdown of the CORINE land cover classes by catchment using a GIS. This approach was validated using observed P loads calculated from flow and concentration data. Mean measured Olsen-P concentrations in the soil A-horizon were also determined on a catchment basis. Plots of P loads to the watercourse versus Olsen-P concentrations in the soil showed a breakpoint around 22 mg Olsen- P l⁻¹ for both SRP & TP data. Below Olsen-P concentrations of 22 mg l⁻¹, SRP & TP losses were essentially independent of Olsen-P at 0.28 and 0.63 kg P ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, respectively. Above Olsen-P concentrations of 22 mg l⁻¹, there was considerable spread in the P loss data. Nevertheless, significant upward trends in SRP and TP losses to watercourses were detected with increasing Olsen-P at a rate of approximately 0.5 and 1.0 kg P ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, for SRP and TP respectively, for each 10 mg l⁻¹ increase in Olsen-P.     

Phosphorus sorption capacities and saturation of soils in two regions with different livestock densities in northwest Germany

Abstract. Soils in areas with high livestock density contribute to the eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems through loss of nutrients, especially phosphorus (P). In order to identify the potential for P loss from such soils we determined phosphorus extracted by water (H₂O-P), by double lactate (DL-P), and P sorption capacity (PSC) and degree of P saturation (DPS) in soil samples from two counties, one with low (Harle-catchment) and the other with very high livestock density (Vechta). Both catchments are hydrologically connected with the tidal areas of the North Sea.
The mean concentrations of H₂O-P (0.4mmol/kg) and DL-P (3.9 mmol/kg) were lower in the Harle-catchment than in the Vechta area (1.2 mmol/kg, 6.8mmol/kg). Although oxalate-extractable Al (Al_ox) and Fe (Fe_ox) and the derived PSCs varied according to soil type and to land use, the livestock density and the resulting high concentrations of oxalate-extractable P (P_ox) were shown to be the main reason for the very high DPS of up to 179% in the county of Vechta. These values exceeded DPS reported from other intensive pig feeding areas in western Europe and indicate the potential for significant P loss. Less than 40% of the variation in P_ox could be explained by the routinely determined H₂O-Por DL-P. Geostatistical analyses indicated that the spatial variability of P_ox depended on manurial history of fields and Al_ox, showed still smaller-scale variability. These were the major constraints for regional assessments of P losses and eutrophication risk from agricultural soils using available soil P-test values, digital maps and geostatistical methods.     

潮土CaCl2-P含量对磷肥施用的响应及其淋失风险分析

【目的】 土壤有效磷 (Olsen-P) 与可溶性磷 (CaCl₂-P) 含量之间存在着平衡,研究磷肥施用量对潮土CaCl₂-P和Olsen-P及其比值的影响,评价磷素的淋失风险,可为潮土区合理利用养分资源、减少磷肥投入和流失提供理论依据。 【方法】 选择长期定位监测基地的5个处理 (对照、NPK、预备处理、NPKM和1.5NPKM处理,简称OP1、OP2、OP3、OP4、OP5),5个处理的土壤Olsen-P含量存在显著差异 (0.8、12.5、25.7、44.7、56.4 mg/kg),据此在每个处理上再设置5个施磷量水平 (F0、F1、F2、F3、F4),试验采取微区形式,随机区组设计,种植作物为夏玉米–冬小麦双季轮作。作物收获后,采集土壤样品,测定土壤Olsen-P和CaCl₂-P含量,建立Olsen-P和CaCl₂-P之间的定量关系。 【结果】 土壤CaCl₂-P含量为0.07～2.68 mg/kg,约为Olsen-P含量的0.5%～5.6%。短期高量磷肥施用可以显著提高土壤Olsen-P和CaCl₂-P含量,但土壤Olsen-P和CaCl₂-P的增加不同步。当土壤Olsen-P低于28.0 mg/kg时,CaCl₂-P/Olsen-P比值随着Olsen-P的增加而降低,当Olsen-P增加至28.0 mg/kg后,CaCl₂-P/Olsen-P比值随着Olsen-P的增加迅速增加,这表明磷肥施用首先提高土壤Olsen-P含量,Olsen-P增长到一定程度后CaCl₂-P才迅速增加。土壤CaCl₂-P和Olsen-P的关系符合双直线模型,突变点时土壤Olsen-P含量为30.2 mg/kg,对应的CaCl₂-P含量为0.3 mg/kg。当土壤Olsen-P含量超过30.2 mg/kg时,土壤磷素淋失风险增加。 【结论】 高量磷肥施用可以提高土壤CaCl₂-P含量,促进作物对磷的吸收,但同时增加了土壤磷素的淋失风险。研究区土壤磷素淋失临界值为30.2 mg/kg,微区试验中超过50%的小区土壤Olsen-P含量已经超过磷素淋失临界值,存在磷素淋失风险,应加强农田磷肥的科学施用和管理。      

Factors influencing nitrogen inputs and outputs in two Scottish upland catchments

Abstract. The factors influencing inorganic nitrogen inputs in wet deposition in two upland catchments in northeast Scotland are discussed. Seasonal trends in nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in water draining from the catchments, and in monthly nitrate-nitrogen outputs, are reported and explained. The inputs in rain exceeded the output in the rivers in the two catchments by 3.9–9.4 kg ha⁻¹a⁻¹. Retention by vegetation probably plays a crucial role in nitrogen cycling in the uplands.     

Agricultural nitrogen balance and water quality in the UK

Abstract. Nutrient balance calculations have been advocated as indicators of the risk of nitrate loss from agricultural land. To explore this concept, a spatially distributed UK agricultural nitrogen balance was derived using annually updated statistics. The mean UK N surplus for 1995 was 115 kg N ha^–1, made up of 51 kg ha^–1for arable land, 140 kg ha^–1 for agricultural grassland (excluding rough grazing) and an additional 14 kg N ha^–1for agricultural land from pig and poultry units. Nitrogen surpluses were greater in lowland grassland (mainly in western, wetter areas) than in arable areas. However nitrate concentrations in rivers were generally greater in arable areas. The relationship between N balance and nitrate leaching was very different for grassland and arable systems, and was also sensitive to climate, level of inputs and management practices. Nitrogen surplus was therefore weakly or even negatively correlated with river nitrate concentrations or loads. A positive correlation was found only where the comparison was restricted to grassland-dominated catchments. Nitrogen surplus calculations identified areas of very high livestock densities, which would be associated with increased risk of pollution. However their use in isolation as indicators of N leaching, or of progress towards mitigation, could be misleading especially if comparing areas differing in land use, climate or soil type.     

Phosphorus cycling in UK agriculture and implications for phosphorus loss from soil

Abstract. Phosphorus (P) use in UK agriculture is reviewed and a P balance sheet presented. The productive grassland and arable area has accumulated an average P surplus of c. 1000 kg ha^–1 over the last 65 years. Over the period 1935–1970, the annual P surplus more than doubled due to an increase in animal numbers and associated requirements for inorganic fertilizers and livestock feeds. Since 1970, surplus P has declined by c . 40% as crop yields and P offtake have continued to increase while fertilizer and manure P inputs have remained relatively constant. In 1993, P use efficiency (P imports/P exports) in UK agriculture was estimated at 25% leading to an average annual surplus of 15 kg P ha^–1 yr^–1, although the latter has since decreased slightly due to reduced fertilizer use. Intensification and specialization of agriculture has also increased the range in P surpluses that are likely between livestock and arable dominated systems. The largest P surpluses occur in the relatively limited areas of arable soils which receive manure from intensive pig and poultry units, whilst farms without manure inputs generate only small surpluses, or are in balance. The cumulative P surplus has led to a build-up of soil total and easily-exchangeable P, especially in areas receiving both fertilizers and manures. Fundamental differences in P use efficiency, surplus P accumulation and the potential for P loss to water, exist between arable and grassland farms and it is important to separate these, due to the marked regionalization of UK agriculture. More judicial use of feeds and fertilizers is required to further reduce the P surplus and minimize the long-term risk of water eutrophication.     

Effects of organic versus conventional arable farming on soil structure and organic matter dynamics in a marine loam in the Netherlands

Abstract. We compared the effects of conventional and organic arable farming on soil organic matter (SOM) content, soil structure, aggregate stability and C and N mineralization, which are considered important factors in defining sustainable land management. Within one soil series, three different farming systems were selected, including a conventional and an organic arable system and permanent pasture without tillage. The old pasture represents optimal conditions in terms of soil structure and organic matter inputs and is characterized by high earthworm activity. More than 70 years of different management has caused significant differences in soil properties. SOM content, mineralization, earthworm activity and water-stable aggregation decreased as a result of tillage and arable cropping when compared with pasture, but were significantly greater under organic farming than under conventional farming. Total SOM contents between 0 and 20 cm depth amounted to 15, 24 and 46 g kg⁻¹ for the conventional arable, organic arable and permanent pasture fields, respectively. Although less sensitive to slaking than the conventionally managed field, the soil under organic farming was susceptible to compaction when high pressures were exerted on the soil under wet conditions. The beneficial effects of organic farming are generally associated with soil biochemical properties, but soil physical aspects should also be considered. Depending on soil type and climate, organic farmers need to be careful not to destroy the soil structure, so that they can enjoy maximum advantage from their organic farming systems.     

The influence of parent material and livestock intensification on plant-available phosphorus values by the Olsen method in Northern Ireland

Abstract. Leaching of phosphorus (P) from agricultural land is the major cause of eutrophication of surface waters in Northern Ireland. However, soil testing using the Olsen method has shown that while soil P in some catchment areas of the Province is low, surface waters within these catchments are, nonetheless, every bit as eutrophic as other local catchments where soil P is high. Soil P measurements on over 6000 samples from Northern Ireland soils (A horizon only) have indicated that Olsen-P values of improved grassland on most parent materials are linearly related to animal intensification. Exceptions are soils derived from peat, marl and basalt. For each of the latter soils, the measured Olsen-P was shown to be around 10 mg L^–1 lower than expected for farms with similar intensification on other parent materials. In particular, the mean Olsen-P values of samples from basaltic soils under grass with total Fe above 62 g kg^–1 and total Mg above 16 g kg^–1 were significantly lower than those from basaltic soils with low total Fe (<37 g kg^–1) and total Mg (<8 g kg^–1). As a result of the depressed Olsen-P value, excessive quantities of P may be applied to these soils to maintain a recommended soil P index thereby enhancing the potential for nutrient enrichment of adjacent surface waters. In such cases, coworkers have shown that acid ammonium oxalate may be a better extractant than bicarbonate as an indicator of plant-available P.     

淹水对石灰性土壤无机磷形态转化的影响

  【目的】  磷肥施入土壤后大部分转化为与铁氧化物关系密切的Fe-P和O-P,而淹水后土壤中铁的氧化还原过程可能影响与铁氧化物结合的磷的形态及有效性的变化。研究不同施磷处理下淹水土壤Fe (II) 、无机磷组分等的变化,以期明确淹水后土壤无机磷形态及磷有效性变化及其与铁氧化还原过程的关系。  【方法】  用不施磷土壤 (P0) 和连续6年施用P 180 kg/hm2的土壤 (P180) 进行室内模拟培养试验。将土壤装于西林瓶内,加水模拟淹水条件,西林瓶密封后,分别在避光或者光照条件下,于 (30 ± 1)℃恒温培养40天。测定供试土壤以及淹水培养土壤中的速效磷、无机磷以及不同形态无机磷组分含量,测定培养过程Fe (II) 的动态变化,以探讨磷形态转化与铁氧化还原过程的关系。  【结果】  施用磷肥显著增加土壤中的速效磷含量和无机磷总量,P0处理土壤速效磷含量为 (7.65 ± 1.65) mg/kg,P180处理土壤速效磷含量高达 (33.5 ± 2.01) mg/kg。施入土壤中的磷只有很小部分以Ca₂-P存在,主要以Ca₁₀-P、Ca₈-P、Al-P和Fe-P形态存在。避光淹水培养后,土壤速效磷含量增加,P0和P180处理土壤速效磷含量的增量分别为8.44、2.95 mg/kg。淹水培养降低了土壤Ca₈-P含量,提升了Fe-P、O-P、Al-P含量。光照和避光条件下P180处理土壤中Ca₈-P含量分别降低106.8、156.2 mg/kg,Fe-P含量分别增加23.4、47.0 mg/kg,O-P含量分别增加64.1、92.9 mg/kg,Al-P含量分别增加38.8、34.7 mg/kg,避光时Ca₈-P降幅以及Fe-P和O-P的增量均大于光照条件下。避光条件下,铁还原量和还原最大速率与Ca₈-P变化量之间存在显著负相关关系,与Fe-P、O-P增量之间存在显著正相关关系。  【结论】  淹水条件下,石灰性土壤中的Fe (Ⅲ) 还原形成Fe (Ⅱ) 和Fe (Ⅲ) 混合物,增加了铁氧化物的比表面积和磷吸附点,可促进Ca₈-P向O-P、Fe-P和Al-P转化。光照降低了Fe (Ⅲ) 的还原量,可能是Ca₈-P向O-P、Fe-P和Al-P转化率低的原因之一。     

Soil erosion potential of organic versus conventional farming evaluated by USLE modelling of cropping statistics for agricultural districts in Bavaria

Abstract. Organic agriculture (OA) aims to identify a production regime that causes less environmental problems than conventional agriculture (CA). We examined whether the two systems differ in their susceptibility to soil erosion by water. To account for the large heterogeneity within the rotations practised on different farms, we chose a statistical evaluation which modelled erosion using the USLE method from the cropping statistics for 2056 districts in Bavaria (70 547 km²; 29.8% arable). Physical conditions of erosion were determined in a rectangular grid yielding 13 125 grid-cells of c. 5 km² each. For validation, erosion was measured in 10 sub-watersheds on two neighbouring OA and CA farms over 8 years (287 erosive events). On average, about 15% less erosion on arable land was predicted for OA than for CA due to the larger area of leys, although OA occupies areas that are susceptible to erosion more often than CA. The same conclusions could be drawn from the validation data. These data also demonstrated that erosion could be reduced considerably below 1 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ with best management practices under both farming systems. In contrast, at the countrywide scale, cropping did not change adequately with site conditions favouring erosion. The need for erosion control seems not to influence crop rotation decisions on erosion-prone sites.     

The phosphorus requirement of Amaranthus mangostanus L. exceeds the 'change point' of P loss

Due to the high economic value of vegetables, farmers in China often apply more fertilizer than is required for plant growth. This leads to phosphorus accumulation in soils, which can pollute the aquatic environment. This conflict arises because vegetables often use nutrients inefficiently, and require high phosphorus levels in the growth medium. In this study, amaranth ( Amaranthus mangostanus L.) was grown in soils with 14.7, 23.8, 45.3, 54.6, 74.2, 101 or 116 mg Olsen-P/kg, and with and without phosphorus fertilizer (175 mg P/kg or equivalent to 385 kg P/ha). The yield of amaranth was positively correlated with soil Olsen-P content. CaCl₂-P content was positively correlated with Olsen-P content and CaCl₂-P markedly increased at Olsen-P contents exceeding 53.8 mg P/kg in the pot experiment or 55.9 mg P/kg in the field survey. These values were regarded as the 'change points' for phosphorus loss; to achieve 85 or 95% of maximum amaranth yield, the amaranth crop required 91or 101 mg Olsen-P/kg soil, respectively, and application of 175 mg P/kg was still able to significantly increase amaranth yield at an Olsen-P level of 74.2 mg P/kg soil. These results indicated that the phosphorus requirement of amaranth exceeded the 'change point' (53.8 or 55.9 mg Olsen-P/kg); the C _min (minimum concentration in the media at which no net influx occurs) of phosphorus for 3-week-old amaranth was 1.55 μ m . This value is much higher than that reported for other crops, and may explain the inefficient P use of amaranth. The high C _min value also indicates that the phosphorus requirement of amaranth is beyond the 'change point' of P loss.     

Simple phosphorus saturation index to estimate risk of dissolved P in runoff from arable soils

Abstract. There is increasing evidence that phosphorus has been accumulating in the surface horizons of agricultural soils to the extent that some soils represent a potential diffuse source of pollution to surface waters. The relationships between equilibrium phosphorus concentration at zero sorption (EPC ₀) of soil and a number of soil physicochemical variables were investigated in the surface layers of arable and grassland agricultural soils sampled from the Thame catchment, England. Soil EPC₀ could be predicted from an equation including soil test (Olsen) P, soil phosphate sorption index (PSI) and organic matter content (OM) (R²=0.88; P <0.001) across a range of soil types and land use. The simple index Olsen P/PSI was found to be a good predictor of EPC₀ (R²=0.77; P <0.001) and readily desorbable (0.02 m KCl extractable) P (R²=0.73; P <0.001) across a range of soil types under arable having soil organic matter contents of <10%.     

Nutrient losses by surface run-off from soils with winter cover crops and spring-ploughed soils in the south of Sweden

Winter cover crops are used as a method of reducing nitrogen (N) losses from arable land in several countries, but their effect on phosphorus (P) losses is poorly documented. Run-off and losses of nutrients and soil were measured from a clay loam with autumn-ploughed and spring-ploughed plots and from plots with winter wheat during three winter seasons (1993–1996) in Holland County in south western Sweden. The run-off water was collected in troughs dug into the soil at the end of collecting slopes placed in the experimental plots. As a result of the weather, there was only one winter in which surface run-off occurred to any great extent. On average, 75% of P was in particulate form (P_part). Neither winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) nor catch crops of English ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) reduced losses of P_part when compared with losses from autumn-ploughed soil; and losses from spring-ploughed soil containing stubble and weeds were no lower than those from autumn-ploughed soil. Losses of P_part from all treatments were moderate considering its low bio-availability. Concentrations of phosphate phosphorus (PO₄-P) were low, with a mean 0.04 mg 1⁻¹. Despite a significant increase in losses of PO₄-P from spring-ploughed soil covered with stubble and catch crops or weeds compared with that in autumn-ploughed soil, the extra input from this P source was at most 2 g ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. This mass loss was equal to 0.5 g kg⁻¹ of the total mass of P in the vegetation. Thus, only very small extra P surface losses were found with winter cover crops compared with those with bare soils. N losses in run-off were low in all treatments.     

Influence of exchangeable potassium on soil erodibility

Abstract. Regular application of slurry manure in large quantities is thought to degrade soil structure and increase erodibility. One hypothesis links this to the large input of potassium which increases the exchangeable potassium percentage (EPP) and, thereby, dispersion. The effect of EPP on erodibility was quantified in three experiments. In the laboratory, eleven rainfall experiments were conducted using a silty topsoil from a typic Hapludalf which was fertilized to EPPs of 4 to 18%. Field rainfall experiments on 22 Inceptisols and Alfisols were used to examine whether the long-term application of monovalent cations (Na⁺, K⁺ and NH₄⁺) with slurry manure had changed soil properties, especially erodibility. In addition, erodibilities of 32 soils determined with natural and simulated rains were taken from literature. The experiments on these 65 soils together covered a wide range of soils, slopes and rainfalls. Dispersion by a large percentage of highly hydrated ions (K⁺, Na⁺) reduced the infiltration rate faster, caused runoff up to 5 min earlier, and increased sediment concentrations by 15g/l compared to low EPP soils. These changes increased soil erodibility of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) by 0.021 t × h/N × ha (where N = Newtons) for each 1% increase in EPP + ESP (exchangeable sodium percentage). The ESP contributed little to this increase as ESP was less than 1/10 of EPP in the experiments.
Fields with long-term manure application had similar chemical, physical and microbiological soil properties as fields without slurry manure except for slightly greater pH (+ 0.6) and P (+ 17 mg/kg) values. We conclude that, as long as the potassium input and output are balanced, the long-term use of slurry manure does not increase erodibility.     

Nitrogen inputs and outputs in a small agricultural catchment in the eastern part of the United Kingdom

Abstract. Nitrate concentrations measured in an ephemeral stream draining a 170 ha clay catchment in eastern England, with about 23% arable land, were greater than 11.3 mg N 1–¹ on the resumption of flow each autumn but then declined. There was also a spring peak in two years out of seven, 1978–1984, which depend on the length of time soils was at field capacity in the preceding winter. Mean annual load measured in rain was 19 kg N ha^-1 and loss of nitrate in the stream 34 kg N ha^-1. A catchment nitrogen balance suggested that inputs, which averaged 130 kg N ha yr^-1, were generally more than outputs, average 108 kg N ha yr^-1', but gaseous losses were not taken into account.     

长期施磷对旱地冬小麦产量及土壤无机磷形态的影响

[目的]旱地石灰性土壤上磷肥利用率普遍较低,研究长期施用磷肥对旱地冬小麦产量及土壤无机磷形态及有效性的影响,为合理施磷提供理论依据.[方法]基于2004年在陕西杨凌开始的长期定位试验,设置施P2O50、50、100、150?kg/hm2共4个施磷水平.于2009、2013、2017年小麦收获期采样、测产,并分析植株和籽...     

Phosphorus Solubilizing Microorganisms in the Rhizosphere of Local Rice Varieties Grown without Fertilizer on Acid Sulfate Soils

Local farmers who living in South Kalimantan (Banjarese farmers) apply almost none of phosphatic (P) fertilizers to grow local rice varieties. This practice has been adopted for many years. We have investigated the mechanisms involved in P availability for the crop. This study focuses on identifying microorganisms involved in solubilizing insoluble P. The study was conducted in Balandean District, South Kalimantan, Indonesia. The soil was classified as acid sulfate soil. Three out of 8 rice varieties grown were selected for net P balance in the soil-plant system and the microbial studies. We found that the P uptakes by the rice crop was much higher than the sum of P released from soil, water and soil microbial biomass P. It was also observed that these soils harboured bacteria and fungi that have the capability of dissolving aluminium phosphate (AIPO₄) and tricalcium phosphate [Ca₃(PO₄)₂].
Based on the area of clear zone on plates, it seem that there were variations of ability in dissolving Al-P or Ca-P. DNA sequence analysis shown that Burkholderia sp. was the common P solubilizing bacterium found in the rhizosphere of rice varieties Siam Unus, Siam Ubi and Siam Puntal. The presence of other bacteria was specific for each rice variety grown.     

Phosphorus loss from agricultural catchments: pathways and implications for management

Abstract. The contribution non-point P sources make to the total P loading on water bodies in agricultural catchments has not been fully appreciated. Using data derived from plot scale experimental studies, and modelling approaches developed to simulate system behaviour under differing management scenarios, a fuller understanding of the processes controlling P export and transformations along non-point transport pathways can be achieved. One modelling approach which has been successfully applied to large UK catchments (50-350km² in area) is applied here to a small, 1.5 km² experimental catchment. The importance of scaling is discussed in the context of how such approaches can extrapolate the results from plot-scale experimental studies to full catchment scale. However, the scope of such models is limited, since they do not at present directly simulate the processes controlling P transport and transformation dynamics. As such, they can only simulate total P export on an annual basis, and are not capable of prediction over shorter time scales. The need for development of process-based models to help answer these questions, and for more comprehensive UK experimental studies is highlighted as a pre-requisite for the development of suitable and sustainable management strategies to reduce non-point P loading on water bodies in agricultural catchments.