Optimizing the growth of forage and grain legumes on low pH soils through the application of superior Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae strains

Climate variability and current farming practices have led to declining soil fertility and pH, with a heavy reliance on fertilizers and herbicides. The addition of forage and grain legumes to farming systems not only improves soil health but also increases farm profitability through nitrogen (N) fertilizer cost offsets. However, the formation of effective symbioses between legumes and rhizobia can be unreliable and is considered at risk when combined with dry sowing practices such as those that have been designed to obviate effects of climate change. This research was initiated to improve the robustness of the legume/rhizobia symbiosis in low pH, infertile and dry soils. Production from two cultivars of field pea (Pisum sativum) and two species of vetch (Vicia spp.), and symbiotic outcomes when inoculated with a range of experimental rhizobial strains (Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae), was assessed in broad acre field trials which simulated farmer practice. New rhizobia strains increased nodulation, N fixation, produced more biomass and higher seed yield than comparator commercial strains. Strain WSM4643 also demonstrated superior survival when desiccated compared to current commercial strains in the laboratory and on seed when delivered as inoculant in peat carriers. WSM4643 is a suitable prospect for a commercial inoculant in Australia and other agricultural areas of the world where growing peas and vetch on soils generally considered problematic for this legume/rhizobia symbiosis. A particular advantage of WSM4643 may be that it potentiates sowing inoculated legumes into dry soil, which is a contemporary response by farmers to climate variation.     

Biserrula pelecinus L. is a promising forage legume for the central Ethiopian highlands

The availability of effective inoculant rhizobia is often critical to the successful development of productive forage legumes. Biserrula pelecinus L. is a legume with potential as forage in Ethiopia to improve livestock feed quality and soil fertility. B. pelecinus can form N₂‐fixing symbiosis with rhizobia in the genus Mesorhizobium. This study investigated the N₂ fixation effectiveness of 15 B. pelecinus‐nodulating Mesorhizobium strains on two subspecies of B. pelecinus (B. pelecinus ssp. leiocarpa, native to Ethiopia, and the introduced B. pelecinus ssp. pelecinus). The most effective strain (WSM3873) on both subspecies was assessed at two sites; one with pre‐existing populations of B. pelecinus‐nodulating rhizobia (Modjo), and one without (Holeta). No inoculation response was observed at Modjo when B. pelecinus ssp. pelecinus was inoculated with WSM3873 alone, however, biomass yield was greatest (11.5 tonne DM/ha) following inoculation along with co‐application of phosphorus and nitrogen. At Holeta, a strong inoculation response was achieved with WSM3873 alone on B. pelecinus ssp. pelecinus. In contrast, B. pelecinus ssp. leiocarpa did not show any response at Modjo and failed to emerge after sowing at Holeta. While the native legume B. pelecinus ssp. leiocarpa appears poorly suited to development as a forage, B. pelecinus ssp. pelecinus and WSM3873 represents a promising legume‐rhizobia symbiosis that could benefit farming systems of the central Ethiopian highlands.     

Tree legumes-temperate grass agroforestry system effects on inorganic soil nitrogen as ecosystem services provision for smallholder farming systems in South Africa

Nitrogen is an essential macro-nutrient for plant growth and is indispensable for high agricultural food productivity and quality. Shortage of good quality forage under the dry winter season and low soil fertility conditions are the major constraints in rural farming systems in the Moist Tall Grassveld of the Upper Thukela, South Africa. The effect of legumes on inorganic soil nitrogen was assessed in an agroforestry trial (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit, Acacia karroo Hayne, Dactylis glomerata L., Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), by soil sampling method. In the agroforestry trial, total inorganic soil nitrogen accumulation was significantly greater under intercropping than under sole crop treatments and, irrespective of the treatments, significantly more nitrate than ammonium nitrogen was measured. The study demonstrated that intercropping grasses with tree legumes could provide important ecosystem services of nitrogen supply in the soil. The results suggested that introducing legume intercrops might constitute a relevant cropping strategy to improve the soil fertility status with regard to nitrogen while at the same time providing forage in smallholder farming systems in South Africa’s Moist Tall Grassveld regions.     

Annual forage legumes in dryland agricultural systems of the West Asia and North Africa Regions: research achievements and future perspective

Forage legumes are vitally important to animal production in the dryland farming systems of the Mediterranean region. Of the diverse forage‐legume species adapted to the Mediterranean climate, vetches, (Vicia spp.), chicklings (Lathyrus spp.), annual medics (Medicago spp), clovers (Trifolium spp.) and species of the Lupinus, Lotus, Onobrychis, Hedysarum and Ornithopus genera are considered to be the most agronomically important and economically valuable species for the region. Adoption of perennial self‐regenerating medic (Medicago spp.) has been limited because of technical difficulties, but annual vetch (Vicia spp.) has the greatest potential as a viable animal‐feed source and a rotation crop with cereals. Some forage legumes survive harsh conditions by their unique underground growth habit, for example, V. amphicarpa and Lathyrus ciliolatus. Efforts to improve forage legumes have been based on both management/cultural factors and breeding. Research based on several long‐term barley‐ and wheat‐based rotation trials has demonstrated the viability of forage legumes, especially vetch, in the region's improved farming system. An additional benefit to such legumes is the enhancement of soil quality, that is, soil fertility, soil organic matter and soil physical properties. Thus, the development of forage legumes is essential to agricultural sustainability in the Mediterranean region and in other dryland cereal‐growing areas of the world where grazing livestock is a dominant enterprise. To build upon the considerable research conducted on forages, intensified efforts are needed to develop locally adapted forage cultivars, to provide economic assessment of forages in cropping systems and to promote technology transfer at the farm and community level.     

Contribution of Medicago sativa to the productivity and nutritive value of forage in semi‐arid grassland pastures

The inclusion of legumes in semi‐arid native grasslands may promote the productivity and nutritive value of forage. This study was designed to assess the effect of legumes (the introduced legume Medicago sativa or the native legume Dalea purpurea) and soil P fertility (addition of 0, 50, or 200 P₂O₅ kg/ha at seeding) on the dry matter and nutrient content of native grasses mixtures, compared with the commonly used introduced forage grass Bromus biebersteinii grown with M. sativa. Plant harvests were performed in September 2008, July 2009 and September 2009. Plants nutrient content, δ¹⁵N value and dry matter were analysed. Results show that the M. sativa enhanced the N and P concentrations of native grass mixtures early in the summer, as well as the N concentration in Bouteloua gracilis in late summer of the driest year, 2009. The higher AM fungal diversity promoted by M. sativa was positively correlated with the dry matter and nitrogen uptake of M. sativa and with the P concentration of native grasses, in early summer. Overall, this study shows that M. sativa promoted beneficial AM fungal taxa and improved forage production in the semi‐arid prairies.     

Multifunctional benefits of sainfoin mixtures: Effects of partner species,sowing density and cutting regime

Grass–legume mixtures have proven successful at improving the sustainability of grasslands. Their ability to suppress unsown species is particularly important for sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia), a forage crop with valuable bioactive compounds, yet low competitiveness. In this 3‐year study, the suitability of six partner species cultivated in mixtures with sainfoin at different annual numbers of cuts and partner sowing densities were evaluated. Mixture yields outperformed average monoculture yields by 31%, reduced the ratio of unsown species by 65% and increased the symbiotic N₂ fixation up to 158 kg ha^?1. A key finding of the study was the highly differential patterns of development of the partner grass species over the 3 years. These patterns of development had a large effect on the persistency of the proportion of sainfoin in the mixtures, which varied in the third year between 17% (when grown with Dactylis glomerata) and 38% (with Lolium perenne). These findings contribute to the further development of sustainable grass–legume systems, as evidence for the successful cultivation of sainfoin as an alternative legume species can help diversification, and knowledge of mixture development supports more persistent legume proportions.     

Effect of applications of organic solid cattle manure on Hungarian vetch and barley intercropping mixtures grown on soils of different depths

Sloping fields on soils of shallow depth to tillage are commonly left uncultivated in many parts of the world. This study was conducted to compare the effects on morphological traits, dry‐matter (DM) yield, legume ratio (LR), crude protein content (CP), crude protein yield (CP yield) and mineral concentrations (N, P, K, S, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na, B and Zn) of Hungarian vetch (Vicia pannonica Crantz.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) grown in intercropping mixtures in response to three rates of organic solid cattle manure application (M₀: 0, M₁: 10, M₂: 20 t ha^?1). Experimentation was conducted on soils of two different soil depths [shallow (8–12 cm; low‐medium erosion risk) and normal soil depth (18–22 cm; no erosion risk)] on a sloping field in the 2006–2007 and 2007–2008 growing seasons at Gumushane, Turkey. Herbage harvested on the shallow depth area had 22–73% less DM yield, 14–72% less CP yield, 6–9% greater CP content and generally higher minerals contents than herbage from the normal soil depth area. Cattle manure applications increased DM yield by about 23%, increased CP content and CP yield, and also increased the contents of most minerals in herbage of the intercropping mixtures, relative to the control, averaged over the two soil depths. It is suggested that, for areas with shallow soil depths that are prone to erosion, plant cover should be used for forage production, and that fertilization with solid cattle manure at 20 t ha^?1 can support production of quality forage of acceptable DM yield.     

Increasing the population of forage peanut in a mixed pasture by controlling the canopy height

The aim of this study was to determine a temporary strategy for increasing the legume population in an established pasture of brachiaria grass (Brachiaria brizantha) and forage peanut (Arachis pintoi). The treatments comprised four previous long‐term canopy heights (10, 20, 30 and 40 cm) from the establishment (the first 32 months after treatment initiation). From September 2014, all of the experimental units were kept at 10 cm height. The pastures were evaluated for their forage harvest, forage mass, botanical composition and stolon and tiller density. The tiller density and brachiaria grass mass were maintained in all pastures since the first season of evaluation (p > 0.10). The stolon density and legume mass were initially lesser at 30 and 40 cm than those at 10 and 20 cm, early in the experiment, but progressively increased over time. After 1 year under 10 cm height, the population and mass of legume were similar in all treatments. Therefore, reducing the canopy height to 10 cm at the beginning of the rainy season is an efficient method to increase the botanical composition of forage peanut in mixed pastures with brachiaria grass.     

Rhizobial Inoculants for Legume Crops

Summary

Legumes are an important source of protein for humans and livestock. Legumes have also been used for soil improvement for centuries because of their N and non-N rotational benefits to non-legume crops. The N benefits include N₂ fixation and mineralization, sparing of soil inorganic N, and reduced immobilization of soil inorganic N. The non-N benefits include breaking pest cycles, improvement of soil structure, and the nutritional and disease-control effects of endophytic rhizobia. Therefore, optimizing the legume-Rhizobium symbiosis is important, and it can be done by selecting or modifying either (or both) symbiotic partner(s) for desirable traits related to N₂ fixation. Rhizobium strains can be selected or genetically modified for traits like N₂ fixation potential, nodulation competitiveness, persistence in soil, compatibility with inoculant carriers, and tolerance to environmental stress factors. Legume genotypes can also be selected, bred or genetically modified for N₂ fixation potential, restricted or preferential nodulation, and tolerance to nitrate and environmental stress factors. When choosing prospective strains or legume genotypes for a particular environment, time and resources can be saved by realizing that the most adaptable rhizobia or legume genotypes are usually those isolated from similar environments. Inoculant delivery methods also affect N₂ fixation. Soil inoculation, particularly with granular inoculants, seems to be often better and never worse than seed inoculation for initiating nodulation and N₂ fixation. Use of pre-inoculated seeds eliminates the seed inoculation operation, but Rhizobium numbers in pre-inoculated seeds tend to be lower than those in traditional inoculant products. Therefore, the time saved by using pre-inoculated seeds should be weighed against the possibility that crop yields may be lower if insufficient Rhizobium numbers are delivered. Until tools for genetic modification of rhizobia or legumes to suit specific requirements are commonly used, N₂ fixation can be enhanced by adopting practices like choosing the best combinations of Rhizobium strains and legume genotypes, the best inoculant formulation and delivery methods, optimum inoculation rates, and providing favourable growing conditions for the crop.     

Optimal defoliation management of brachiaria grass–forage peanut for balanced pasture establishment

A well‐established canopy is crucial for a stable mixed grass–legume forage pasture. The aim of this study was to assess a defoliation intensity that can ensure the establishment of mixed pasture of brachiaria grass (Brachiaria brizantha) intercropped with forage peanut (Arachis pintoi). The treatments comprised four canopy heights: 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm, maintained throughout the first 3 years of pasture establishment. Canopy structure, morphogenetic and structural characteristics were measured. A block design was used with four replicates, and seasons of the year were considered using repeated measurements over time. Light interception during the experimental period was 86.3%, 95.9%, 97.6%, and 99.1% for 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm of defoliation respectively (p < .001). Competition for light in taller canopies (at 30 and 40 cm) caused etiolation of forage peanut (greater internode, petiolate and stolon lengths). This response promoted its upward growth, leading to a lower stolon density compared with 10 and 20 cm. The treatment at 10 cm displayed a predominance of forage peanut (up to 0.614), potentially compromising community stability. Overall, the 20 cm canopy height showed a desired botanical composition (from 0.20 to 0.45 of legume in forage mass) and thus was considered an ideal defoliation intensity for establishment of mixed canopies of brachiaria grass and forage peanut.     

Hard seed breakdown patterns of unprocessed forage legume seed sown into dry soil in summer in southern Australia

The patterns and extent of hard seed breakdown of dormant seeds and pods following burial in the soil in February (summer) varied for up to 19 accessions of 12 species of annual forage legumes. The experiments, at six sites across southern Australia, were designed to identify legumes whose patterns of hard seed breakdown would suit them to agronomic evaluation in a summer sowing research program. For a subset of accessions, sufficient hard seed breakdown was demonstrated between February and April to allow a high proportion of seed to germinate in late autumn—a desirable pattern for summer sowing. Although there was a large G x E interaction, some cultivars of Ornithopus sativus Brot., O. compressus L. and Trifolium spumosum L. had a pattern that was reproducible at all sites. The experiments also identified accessions of Biserrula pelecinus L. and T. glanduliferum Boiss., which had the desirable pattern in regions of south‐eastern Australia, but not Western Australia. A pragmatic approach for selection of forage legume accessions in situ for evaluation within a summer sowing program was demonstrated.     

Self‐regeneration of hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) as affected by seedling density and soil tillage method in a semi‐arid agroecosystem

Vicia villosa Roth is a forage legume with the capability for biological N fixation and natural reseeding, which could contribute to sustainability in semi‐arid regions. This study aimed to determine (i) the relationship between vetch density, seed production and spontaneous seed dispersal; (ii) the impact of the post‐dispersal tillage treatment over the soil seedbank dynamics; and (iii) potential predation of the seedbank by feral pigeons. A density range between 50 and 200 plants m^?2 did not influence seed production or seed dispersal. Shallow disc tillage (SDT) clearly favoured self‐regeneration, resulting in higher amount of emerged seedlings during autumn compared to no tillage (NT). Based on observed emergence data, the percentage of emerged seedlings under SDT and NT were 38 and 6% of the seedbank, respectively, during 18 months after plot harvest. The lowest emergence values registered under NT could be associated with higher pressure from natural predators, soil‐borne pathogens, seed decay by ageing and false breaks. The feral pigeon (Columba livia var.) might be considered the main cause of vetch seedbank depletion in this study. Under controlled conditions, a single pigeon is able to consume, on average, between 184 and 768 seeds per day, depending on seed exposure and alternative food sources availability.     

The history and distribution of nodulating Paraburkholderia,a potential inoculum for Fynbos forage species

Legumes in the Fynbos vegetation of the Western Cape of South Africa have emerged as candidates for domestication, particularly for their adaptation to acidic and infertile soils. However, South African rhizobia have been shown to be very diverse and unique, and a detailed understanding of them is essential to success in forage breeding programs that seek to exploit these “new” legumes. Symbionts of legumes in South Africa that belong to traditional rhizobial genera have been shown to have a unique origin for their symbiotic loci in comparison to members sampled from other regions of the world. Some of the legume tribes in the Fynbos have also been shown to associate predominantly with unique species in the Betaproteobacterial genus Paraburkholderia. The rhizobial members of this genus have two main centres of diversity, of which South Africa is one. In this centre, the legume hosts are principally from the Papilionoideae subfamily while hosts from the mimosoid clade (now in the Caesalpinioideae) are abundant in the South American centre. Not only do these rhizobia differ in terms of host, but their symbiotic loci also show separate origins. The dominance and uniqueness of the Paraburkholderia symbionts, in the context of indigenous South African legumes, makes understanding the history and factors that affect the distribution of this genus essential if successful adaptation and effective nodulation of these legumes in Agriculture are to be achieved globally.     

Forage biomass,soil cover,stability and competition in perennial grass–legume pastures with different Paspalum species

The short life span, irregular forage production and susceptibility to weed colonization of cool‐season grass–legume pastures are serious problems in grazing dairy systems in warm‐temperate regions. The inclusion of warm‐season species has the potential to mitigate these problems. In this study, we evaluated the effect of the inclusion of two warm‐season grasses with different growth habits on seasonal forage biomass, soil cover and weed colonization. Three different pasture mixtures were evaluated under grazing: conventional pasture (CP) [tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), white clover (Trifolium repens) and birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)], CP with Paspalum dilatatum and CP with Paspalum notatum (CP + Pn). Forage biomass and soil cover were sampled thirteen times during a 3‐year trial, and sampling times were grouped by season for the analyses. The mixtures with Paspalum showed higher soil cover in the autumn, while in the winter CP had higher soil cover than CP + Pn. Competition with tall fescue was similar between mixtures with Paspalum, when considering biomass, but it was higher in CP + Pn when considering soil cover. The inclusion of P. notatum increased biomass during the autumn but decreased the mixture performance during winter by reducing tall fescue soil cover. The addition of a warm‐season grass species with a moderate competing ability like P. dilatatum is likely to avoid a negative impact on the cool‐season component of the pasture.     

Exploiting genetic and physiological variation of the native forage grass Trichloris crinita for revegetation in arid and semi‐arid regions: An integrative review

In arid, semi‐arid and dry subhumid regions, which represent ~ 41% of the Earth's land surface, desertification and soil degradation are very frequent, leading to low soil fertility and productivity. In these regions, revegetation with locally adapted native species may aid in ameliorating desertification processes. Trichloris crinita is a C4 perennial grass native to arid and semi‐arid regions of the American continent. Its good forage quality, drought tolerance, resistance to trampling and grazing, and rapid growth and competing aggressiveness among other native species warrant its use as forage and for revegetation purposes. In the last decades, many studies have revealed broad intraspecific genetic variation for ecophysiological, morphological, biomass production, nutritional quality (as forage) and adaptive stress response‐related traits. Also, results from field trials evaluating T. crinita genotypes as forage and for restoration of degraded areas suggest great potential for—and have encouraged—its utilization under different habitats and environmental conditions. In this integrative review, we compiled and discussed the most relevant research data regarding T. crinita, focusing on aspects and traits that influence its utilization both as forage and in rehabilitation of degraded lands. Challenges and prospects towards the improvement of this species in breeding programmes with specific goals are discussed.     

Differences in the crude protein fractions of lucerne leaves and stems under different stand structures

Protein degradability in forage legumes is of global importance because utilization efficiency of forage has economic and environmental consequences. However, there are no published studies on the effect of legume stand structure on differences in crude protein (CP) fractions. The main objective of the present research was therefore to investigate differences in CP fractions in leaves and stems of lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) during the growing season. Stand traits were measured over 2 years, and forage was sampled at the early bud and early flower stages in the first, second and third cuts. Stems had significantly higher concentrations (in g kg^?1 CP) of non‐protein (fraction A: 430 g kg^?1 CP) and indigestible nitrogen (fraction C: 92 g kg^?1 CP) than leaves and had lower relative content of true protein (fraction B: 478 g kg^?1 CP). In the total forage (stems and leaves combined), about 80% of the variation in CP fractions was explained by year, cut and maturity. Year was the most important factor, particularly for the B fractions. Cut was the second‐most important factor; its main effect was that the relative abundance of fraction A declined from 394 g kg^?1 CP in the first cut to 293 in g kg^?1 CP the third cut. Maturity increased the amounts of indigestible fraction C and protein fractions B₁ and B₃. This was associated with the leaf weight ratio, which had an inverse relationship with maximal stem length and dry matter yield. Variation partitioning showed that 75% of CP fraction variability associated with cut, maturity and year could be explained by the evaluated stand traits. This research has highlighted the need to consider plant morphological traits when legume CP fractions are evaluated.     

Molybdenum-enriched soybean seeds enhance N accumulation, seed yield, and seed protein content in Brazil

High soybean yields require large amounts of nitrogen (N), which can be obtained mainly from symbiotic N₂ fixation. However, the efficiency of this biological process can be limited by micronutrient deficiencies, especially of molybdenum (Mo). In Brazil, soybean generally responds positively to fertilization with Mo in soils of low fertility and in fertile soils depleted of Mo due to long-term cropping. The micronutrient can be supplied by seed treatment, however toxicity of Mo sources to Bradyrhizobium strains applied to seed as inoculant has been observed, resulting in bacterial death and reductions in nodulation, N₂ fixation and grain yield. Therefore, use of seeds enriched in Mo could be a viable alternative to exterior seed treatment, allowing elite inoculant strains of Bradyrhizobium to sustain high rates of biological N₂ fixation. We demonstrated the feasibility of producing Mo-rich seeds of several soybean cultivars, by means of two foliar sprays of 400 g Mo ha⁻¹ each, between the R3 and R5 stages, with a minimum interval of 10 days between sprays. As a result of this method, considerable increases in seed-Mo content were obtained, of as much as 3000%, in comparison to seeds obtained from plants which received no Mo. In field experiments performed in soils with low N content and without any N-fertilizer supply, inoculation of Mo-rich seeds produced plants with increased N and Mo contents in the grain and higher yields of total N and of grain. In most cases, Mo-rich soybean seeds did not require any further application of Mo-fertilizer.     

Forage chain arrangement for sustainable livestock systems in a Mediterranean area

Mediterranean forage systems suffer from limited availability of fresh forage because of water deficits and extreme temperatures. Consequently, fresh forage is unavailable for at least 6–7 months a year, and farmers must buy feed to support livestock production. With the aim of overcoming these limitations, a 2‐year trial was conducted on three distinct sites in Sicily (at 10, 600 and 1200 m elevation) with thirty‐four varieties of forage species belonging to nine biennial/perennial and thirteen annual species. Results showed that by integrating grasses and legumes, species from environments with different climatic conditions enable the season of forage production to be extended from mid‐April to mid‐November. Quality traits of forage in different areas varied in relation to species and varieties. In general, the sown‐forage quality was better than in pastures and fallows in the same areas commonly used to feed animals. This also leads to a reduction in the use of supplementary feeds. Among the tested species, Lolium multiflorum and Medicago sativa emerged as the most promising for filling the forage‐deficit periods, and Trifolium spp. and Vicia sativa were found to be superior for increasing forage quality. The results are discussed in the context of adapting Mediterranean forage supplies for ensuring greater sustainability of livestock production in mountain, hill and plain areas. The proposed forage chain arrangement represents part of local potential adaptation to climate limitations and climate change.     

The Role of Nitrogen Fixation in Crop Production

Summary

Biological nitrogen fixation is an important process for agricultural productivity in many cropping systems because of direct inputs of atmospheric nitrogen, and rotational effects such as disease control. Advances in molecular biology techniques provide new opportunities to understand the ecology of root nodule bacteria and may improve the selection of elite strains for inoculation. An understanding of the genetic basis of nodulation in grain and pasture legumes may improve inoculation technologies. Temperate and tropical pastures may be improved through effective inoculation, removal of nutritional constraints, and use of alternate legume species. Increases in nitrogen fixation in crop legumes may result from addressing problems in the legume host, the microsymbiont and the environment.     

Sainfoin production in western Canada: A review of agronomic potential and environmental benefits

Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) is a forage legume of renewed interest in western Canada, with equally weighted advantages and disadvantages. In agronomic attributes, sainfoin is, at best, equal in yield, crude protein content and persistence to alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Sainfoin is equally or more palatable than alfalfa to ruminants, with comparable levels of animal productivity per unit forage consumed. The advantages it has compared to alfalfa include the following: (a) mitigation of frothy bloat; (b) reduced ammonia emissions (more faecal nitrogen (N) and less urinary N); (c) equal or better N retention by ruminants; and (d) anthelmintic protection from intestinal parasites. These advantages may be attributed to the presence of condensed tannins (CT), in legumes such as sainfoin. Emphasis on agronomic characteristics in breeding programmes appears to have led to the inadvertent reduction in the efficacy of CT characteristics. Persistence of sainfoin appears to be dependent on minimal pressure from competing plants, harvest or grazing, and good growth conditions from mid‐summer into fall, allowing for adequate root reserves for survival. It is possible that judicious use of glyphosate in late season might lessen competition in that critical period as sainfoin is more glyphosate‐tolerant than alfalfa. Otherwise, sainfoin may be best considered a short‐lived forage and best adapted for early season harvest or grazing to eliminate the risk of bloat.