Permeation of soil fumigants through agricultural plastic films

Plastic films are used in soil fumigation to control fumigant emission into the atmosphere. In previous studies it was shown that the plastic films are permeable to fumigant vapors. Virtually impermeable films (VIF) have been developed to reduce such emission and to increase the efficacy of pest control. A rapid, accurate, sensitive and simple method to measure the permeability of plastic films to soil fumigants that was developed in the present study is described in this paper. The method uses a static, closed system in which the tested film is fixed between two cells. The fumigant is sampled by a solid-phase microextraction method and measured quantitatively by gas chromatography. The method was used to assess the permeability of two plastic films — a low-density polyethylene film (LDPE) and a VIF — to commercial soil fumigants formulated individually or in mixtures. All the tested fumigants permeated through the commonly used LDPE film, in the following descending order of permeability: methyl isothiocyanate (MITC), methyl bromide (MBr), 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D; Telone), chloropicrin (CP). The VIF was impermeable to all the tested fumigants except MITC, the permeation of which was reduced by 40%. The permeation of some fumigants through LDPE films was influenced by the formulation used. The permeation of CP was increased when it was combined with MBr in Bromopic. With Telopic, a mixture of 1,3-D and CP, the permeation of 1,3-D through LDPE film was 62% greater than that of Telone, whereas that of CP was not affected. The permeation rates of both MBr and CP were 25–30% greater when they were formulated as a mixture in Bromopic than when they were formulated individually. The formulation of fumigants as mixtures of two components did not affect their permeability through VIF. This study showed that differences in the suitability of plastic films for soil fumigation can be measured easily in a laboratory. It also showed that the VIP was more effective than LDPE in reducing losses of fumigant to the atmosphere, thus allowing more efficient use of fumigants to manage soilborne pests. The presented method helps us to choose the most adequate film for optimizing fumigation efficacy, and reducing costs and environmental risks. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Sept. 17, 2006.     

微生物菌肥对熏蒸剂处理后土壤微生态的影响研究进展

土壤熏蒸是防治土传病害的有效手段,但化学熏蒸剂在杀死病原微生物的同时也会对有益微生物群落的组成与活性造成影响。微生物菌肥不仅能够减少农作物的病虫害侵染,而且能够改善农产品的品质与产量。将土壤熏蒸剂与微生物菌肥配合使用将有利于连作土壤修复、土壤-植物微生态环境的改良与重塑。一方面,土壤熏蒸剂用于消灭前茬作物遗留下的土壤病原物,给土壤进行消毒处理;另一方面,施用微生物菌肥给“纯净”的土壤环境输入有益菌群,引导更利于植物生长的土壤微生态环境(土壤理化性质、土壤微生物群落结构)形成。本文简述了土壤熏蒸剂、微生物菌肥以及微生物菌肥介入熏蒸后的土壤对土壤理化性质、土壤酶系及土壤微生物群落变化的研究进展,旨在系统解析微生物菌肥对经熏蒸剂处理后土壤微环境变化的影响,以期为解决连作障碍、防治土传病害、恢复植物根际功能提供相关理论与技术参考。     

新型土壤熏蒸剂二甲基二硫研究进展

采用熏蒸剂进行土壤消毒可有效控制设施作物及高附加值作物的土传有害生物,其中熏蒸效果突出的熏蒸剂溴甲烷由于会破坏臭氧层而被禁用,导致土传有害生物熏蒸治理过程中缺乏高效稳定的熏蒸产品。二甲基二硫是一种新型熏蒸剂,对有害线虫具有高活性,可兼治部分土传病原菌及杂草。广谱、安全和高效等优点使其成为最有推广应用前景的溴甲烷替代药剂,或将改善国内杀线虫熏蒸剂缺乏的局面。该文系统综述了国内外关于二甲基二硫对土传有害生物的防控活性、作用机制和降解、散发逃逸、扩散分布及残留等环境行为,以及对土壤养分、微生物及非靶标生物等方面的影响,以期为二甲基二硫的开发及推广应用提供参考。     

Status of chemical alternatives to methyl bromide for pre-plant fumigation of soil

ABSTRACT None of the chemical alternatives currently registered and available has the full spectrum of activity and versatility of methyl bromide as a pre-plant soil fumigant. Chloropicrin and 1,3-dichloropropene (Telone) can provide significant control of many plant pathogens in soil and growth stimulation in annual crops. These compounds, however, provide limited control of weeds or other residual plant materials in soil of concern in nursery production systems, and some perennial replant diseases. Methyl isothiocyanate generators such as metam sodium have broad biocidal activity in soil, but are more difficult to apply effectively. In most soil applications, the available alternatives are likely to be used in combinations, either as mixtures (e.g., 1,3-dichloropropene and chloropicrin) or sequentially (e.g., chloropicrin followed by metam sodium). They may also be supplemented with other more specific pesticides and cultural controls. Among the alternatives currently under active development but not yet available, methyl iodide and propargyl bromide probably have activity that most closely parallels that of methyl bromide in soil. However, all of the chemical alternatives to methyl bromide will be subject to continuing review and more regulation. Furthermore, we do not know the actual prospects for registration of the new fumigants currently under development and there is a risk that registered fumigants will not be available for large-scale use in soil indefinitely.     

Incompatibility of metam sodium with halogenated fumigants

Metam sodium (metam) is a widely used soil fumigant. Combined application of metam and other available fumigants is intended to produce synergic pesticidal effects for a broad spectrum of pest control in soil fumigation. This study aimed to test the compatibility of metam with the halogenated fumigants 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D), chloropicrin, methyl bromide, methyl iodide and propargyl bromide. Halogenated fumigants and metam were spiked simultaneously into organic solvents, water and moist soils, and metam-induced degradation of these halogenated chemicals was evaluated. In all three media, the halogenated fumigants were incompatible with metam and degraded via rapid chemical reactions. The degradation rate varied with halogenated fumigant species and increased as the amount of metam present was increased. In moist soil, 15-95% of the halogenated fumigants were decomposed within 72 h by metam at a 1:1 molar ratio. Combined application of Telone C-35 (62.5% 1,3-D + 35% chloropicrin) at 265 mg kg(-1) and Vapam (42% metam) at 567 mg kg(-1) in soil resulted in complete disappearance of the applied chloropicrin and 20-38% of the 1,3-D within 8 h. The results suggest that simultaneous application of halogenated fumigants and metam at the same soil depth will not maximize pest control. In practice, sequential treatment of soil or application at different soil depths is recommended when these two types of fumigants are used in combination.     

Some Aspects of Chemical Control of Soil-borne Pathogens

The effect of a soil fumigant on soil-borne pests and pathogens depends largely on a sufficient distribution through the top soil and the availability of the fumigant or the biologically active degradation products in the water phase. Nearly all the fumigants are dispersed in the soil mainly in the vapour phase and therefore the amount of air between the soil particles is very important. Consequently on light soils it is relatively easy to obtain an efficient control, but on heavy or wet soils and on soil types with a high humus content it is rather difficult to get reliable results. The concentration of the fumigant in the upper few cm. of the soil is often insufficient to get good control after injection of the material at 15–20 cm. depth. The effect may be improved by using a plastic cover or a «split plot>> application.
The elimination of most of the fumigant, to avoid a phytotoxic effect is a cause for concern on wet soils and on soil types with a high organic content. Factors influencing the decrease of the fumigant residue in the soil are discussed. The soil fumigant application gives rise to important changes in the whole ecosystem in the soil. Information on the influence on non-target organisms is scarce. The application of dichloropropene and of chloropicrin may lead to a noticeable effect on the nitrificating bacteria.
The soil application of fumigants may give rise to residues in plants of the parent chemical or, to a larger extent, to residues of metabolites e.g. Br^- after soil disinfection with Br^- containing fumigants such as methylbromide, EDB¹), etc. The enrichment of the soil with Br^- may cause phytotoxic effects on susceptible crops such as carnations. The fate of the metabolites arising from dichloropropene and related compounds has not been fully clarified.     

土壤熏蒸对土壤氮循环及其功能微生物的影响研究进展

土壤熏蒸凭借高效、广谱等优点已被广泛应用,但正因为其具有广谱性,熏蒸剂在杀死土壤中有害生物的同时,也影响着驱动土壤中各种元素循环、转化的非靶标微生物。土壤氮循环是连接大气、土壤和水体的重要枢纽,而与氮循环有关的关键过程主要由微生物所驱动,因此,土壤熏蒸势必会影响氮循环中的物质转化。已有研究表明,熏蒸剂可显著改变一些与土壤氮循环相关的功能基因及功能微生物的种类及丰度,其中一些熏蒸剂在进行熏蒸处理后,短期内均能提高土壤中氮的矿化速率,增加土壤中的氮素累积矿化量,而固氮、硝化和反硝化过程均受到抑制,可提高对氮素的利用率。本文就常用的几种熏蒸剂在进行土壤熏蒸后,对土壤中氮循环中的固氮、矿化、硝化和反硝化等反应中的各个关键过程和功能微生物产生的影响进行综述,可为研究土壤熏蒸的环境风险提供依据。     

Fumigant combinations for Cyperus esculentum L control

The phase-out of methyl bromide as a soil fumigant has stimulated research into the use of other soil fumigants for weed control. Methyl bromide, methyl iodide, propargyl bromide, 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D) and metam-sodium were tested alone and in combination with chloropicrin in laboratory experiments to determine their efficacy against Cyperus esculentus L (yellow nutsedge) tubers. Propargyl bromide and metam-sodium were the most efficacious fumigants tested, with EC50 values of 3.7 and 6.5 microM, respectively. The relative potencies of methyl iodide and chloropicrin were not significantly different but were 2.6 and 2.9 times more potent than methyl bromide, respectively. The EC50 values for all fumigants other than 1,3-D were significantly lower than that of methyl bromide. Combining each fumigant with 17% chloropicrin resulted in a synergistic interaction. The greatest increase in potency between the expected result and the actual result was a relative potency of 3.8 with the methyl bromide/chloropicrin combination. The smallest increase in efficacy was with propargyl bromide and chloropicrin, with a relative potency of 1.5. There was no significant difference between the EC50 values of methyl bromide/chloropicrin and methyl iodide/chloropicrin combinations. Combining 1,3-D with 17% chloropicrin resulted in an EC50 value for C. esculentus control similar to that of methyl iodide applied alone.     

改良剂对熏蒸处理后土壤环境改善和促进作物生长的研究进展

土壤熏蒸是目前防治土传病、虫、草害有效且快速的方法,但随着作物的种植,一些病原物可能会再次繁殖,导致病害持续发展,并且土壤经熏蒸处理后,会导致土壤微环境处于一种失衡状态,而土壤改良剂可以有效改善土壤环境、减少作物根部疾病、减少土壤养分流失并可提高农产品的品质.将熏蒸剂与改良剂联合使用在一定程度上可以修复或改良土壤,使受...     

Effect of application timing and method on efficacy and phytotoxicity of 1,3-D, chloropicrin and metam-sodium combinations in squash plasticulture

BACKGROUND: Metam-sodium, 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D) and chloropicrin are widely used soil fumigants. Combined application of metam-sodium and 1,3-D + chloropicrin is intended to improve efficacy and broaden spectrum of control, but little is known about the effect on crop safety. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of application timing of fumigant combinations on soilborne pest and disease control (nematodes, soil fungi and weeds) and growth of squash. Two separate tests with chisel-injected and drip-applied fumigant combinations and plant-back times ranging from 1 to 4 weeks were conducted in Tifton, GA, USA, in spring and fall 2002. RESULTS: Fumigant combinations using 1,3-D, chloropicrin and metam-sodium were as effective as methyl bromide in controlling Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White) Chitwood, Pythium irregulare Buis., Rhizoctonia solani Kühn and Cyperus esculentus L. Chisel-applied combinations were more effective in terms of root-knot nematode control than drip-applied combinations. Root-knot nematode reduced squash yields by up to 60%. Phytotoxicity problems and lower yields were observed during spring, especially following 1,3-D + chloropicrin and when plant-back periods were shorter. CONCLUSION: The main problem with fumigant alternatives to methyl bromide may not be reduced efficacy but, in particular for 1,3-D products, loss of flexibility in terms of longer plant-back periods.     

完全不渗透膜对熏蒸剂大气散发的控制效果

为明确完全不透性膜(totally impermeable film,TIF)对熏蒸剂在田间应用时散发和残留的影响,采用静态散发箱技术测定了TIF与聚乙烯膜(polythene film,PE)对氯化苦、1,3-二氯丙烯(1,3-dichloropropene,1,3-D)和棉隆施用后所产生的异硫氰酸甲酯(methyl isothiocyanate,MITC)大气散发的控制效果,并应用气相色谱法检测了揭膜后3种熏蒸剂在土壤中的残留情况。结果表明,在20 g/m~2(棉隆为15 g/m~2)剂量下,氯化苦、1,3-D及MITC透过PE的累积散发率为施用量的6.42%、7.37%和22.27%,透过TIF的累积散发率为施用量的0、0.65%和2.05%,表明TIF极大地降低了熏蒸剂向大气的散发量,可有效控制熏蒸剂向大气扩散。揭膜后氯化苦及1,3-D在各处理土壤中的残留量均低于0.30 mg/kg,说明TIF没有增加土壤中氯化苦和1,3-D的残留量;但MITC(15 g/m~2)在TIF下10~20 cm土壤中的残留量在3.28~3.41 mg/kg之间,高于在PE下的残留量(0.46~0.47 mg/kg),表明TIF能提高MITC在土壤中的持效浓度。     

Evaluation of volatile low molecular weight insecticides using Drosophila melanogaster as a model

Volatile insecticides, otherwise known as fumigants, have numerous uses in pest control and integrated pest management. Fumigants have been broadly applied in the protection of stored agricultural commodities and also in the elimination of structural pest infestations. However, fumigants have so far been mostly overlooked for use in management of public health pests such as flies and mosquitoes. This paper reports information on the development of a volatility bioassay for use in evaluating volatile insecticides against dipteran insects and on the use of this bioassay to compare the relative efficacy of 30 candidate compounds to Drosophila melanogaster Meig. The findings revealed seven highly effective insecticidal compounds, which include three heterobicyclics (menthofuran, thiophene and coumaran) and four formate esters [butyl, hexyl and heptyl formate and ethylene glycol diformate (EGDF)]. Ethyl formate, a compound previously identified as being a highly effective fumigant against coleopteran stored product pests, caused toxicity in Drosophila but was not as effective as other tested formates. Two volatile fumigant insecticides, dichlorvos (DDVP) and methyl isothiocyanate (MITC), were also tested as positive controls. Both of these volatile standards were significantly more toxic than the seven most effective of the novel compounds. Finally, regression analyses revealed that volatility is not entirely predictive of acute toxicity and that other structural features should be considered when designing and synthesizing volatile insecticidal compounds for future study.     

土传病害防治技术进展及面临的挑战

近10年来, 随着人们对环境的关注, 绿色发展成为农业生产的主流。在土传病害的防治中, 要尽可能减少对环境和生态的影响, 同时保证取得更好的经济效益。因而, 一些环境友好的防治技术受到重视。农业防治技术如抗性品种利用和嫁接、阻截传播、深翻、轮作和无土栽培; 生物防治技术如生物熏蒸、厌氧消毒、生物防治制剂等; 物理防治技术如太阳能消毒、火焰消毒、微波消毒、电消毒、射频消毒也在不断地创新; 化学防治技术主要依赖土壤熏蒸剂, 一些新型的环境友好的熏蒸剂如异硫氰酸烯丙酯、二甲基二硫、乙二腈、乙蒜素等也在不断发展。熏蒸剂新剂型、新的施药机械也在不断创新。土壤熏蒸剂在防治土传病害时, 也会对土壤中的微生态造成不同程度的影响。此外, 我们也应该清醒地认识到任何技术都有两面性, 并正视不同防治技术中的不足。土传病害作为一类难以防治的病害, 也面临着巨大的挑战, 高传染性要求有高质量的种苗和高效的防治和阻隔技术, 土传病害的定量检测技术, 土壤中的病原菌数量与发病的关系、土壤微生态对发病的影响都是亟待研究和解决的问题。在防控土传病害时, 如何减少温室气体的排放、减少防治投入以及塑料薄膜的污染均为面临的环境和经济学挑战。     

Dosage values obtained following pre-plant fumigation for perennials II. Using special methods of applying methyl bromide and 1,3-dichloropropene nematicides

The movement of 1,3-dichloropropene and methyl bromide was monitored in various field situations involving fumigant application coupled with contemporary soil profile modification techniques. The soil moisture, temperature, texture and profile differences are reported in each case. A combination of soil modification and soil fumigation may provide for better plant response than either treatment alone. Spot and strip treatments may provide an efficient method of applying certain pre-plant fumigants to protect young perennials.     

A simulation model for fate and transport of methyl bromide during fumigation in plastic‐mulched vegetable soil beds

A coupled water‐heat and chemical transport model was used to describe the fate and transport of methyl bromide fumigant in low‐density polyethylene plastic‐mulched soil beds used for vegetable production. Methyl bromide transport was described by convective‐dispersive processes including transformations through hydrolysis. Effects of non‐isothermal conditions on chemical transport were considered through inclusion of temperature effects on transport parameters. An energy‐balance approach was used to describe the plastic‐mulched boundary condition that controls the thermal regime within the soil bed. Simulations were made for variable water‐saturation regimes within the bed and for different depths of fumigant injection. Simulations for various scenarios revealed that large amounts (20–44% over a 7‐day period) of applied methyl bromide are lost from the un‐mulched furrows between the beds. Plastic mulching of the bed was found to be only partially effective (11–29% emission losses over a 7‐day period) in reducing atmospheric emissions. Deep injection of fumigant and saturating the soil with water both led to increased retention of methyl bromide within the soil and less emission to the atmosphere. However, deep injection was unfavorable for effective sterilization of the crop root zone. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

A kinetic model of fumigant sorption by grain using batch experimental data

BACKGROUND: Most fumigants are adsorbed by grain at differing rates depending on the fumigant or grain type. Sorption can reduce the concentrations of fumigation doses to sublethal levels before grain has been disinfested. A model to predict fumigant losses due to sorption in industrial scenarios is needed. RESULTS: This work reviews the kinetics of grain fumigant sorption and develops a new alternative model based upon key factors established from the literature and batch experimental results. The novel model accounts for linear mass transfer within the grain, irreversible 'binding' and linear partitioning of the fumigant to the grain. Model coefficients were estimated by minimizing the sum of squared residuals between model predictions and experimental data. The model was compared with other options including diffusion into spheres, and results for methyl bromide and phosphine are provided. CONCLUSION: The model describes the transient changes of fumigant concentrations in both the intergranular air and grain. It provides the capacity to predict fumigant concentrations throughout grain stacks for a wide range of scenarios of industrial importance.     

Physical, chemical and environmental properties of selected chemical alternatives for the pre-plant use of methyl bromide as soil fumigant

Production and use of methyl bromide, a soil fumigant, are being restricted because of this chemical's deleterious effects on stratospheric ozone concentrations. Several products, some of which are currently used as soil fumigants, are being considered as possible replacements for methyl bromide, alone and in various combinations. Among these, 1,3-dichloropropene, methyl isothiocyanate generators such as metam-sodium, and chloropicrin are currently registered, while others such as methyl iodide and sodium azide are at different stages of the registration process. This review examines physicochemical properties, environmental fate, and metabolism of the various potential methyl bromide replacement products.     

Addition of a monovalent cationic pesticide to improve efficacy of bipyridyl herbicides in Hulah Valley soils

Bipyridyl herbicides are widely used in agriculture and gardening for non-selective weed control. Since they are toxic and relatively expensive, it is ecologically and economically desirable to reduce the amounts applied. A decrease in efficacy of these herbicides is caused by dust accumulated on leaves of weeds. This inactivation arises from the adsorption of the herbicides on dust particles, mainly made of clay minerals, lime and soil organic matter. In order to improve the efficacy and so lower the amounts applied, formulations were developed which include cationic pesticides approved for agricultural use, such as mepiquat or difenzoquat. Such addition restored the efficacy of the bipyridyl herbicides by reducing their binding to dust particles. The proposed formulations, which were tested on a number of different dust-covered plants, allowed the amounts of herbicide applied to be reduced to 50% of the minimum recommended rate. Neither mepiquat or difenzoquat had any herbicidal activity when sprayed alone at the added rates. The results suggest a procedure that may lower the required rates of contact herbicides, reducing costs and toxicity. This procedure, which can be applied immediately, may have broad implications in farming and gardening.     

土壤熏蒸剂研究进展

土壤熏蒸剂可有效防治土传病虫害,但效果最好的熏蒸剂溴甲烷由于破坏臭氧层,已被禁止用在农业上(必要用途豁免除外)。碘甲烷、氯化苦、异硫氰酸甲酯、1,3-二氯丙烯、二甲基二硫、硫酰氟、棉隆及威百亩是国际上已经登记使用的土壤熏蒸剂;甲酸乙酯、乙二腈、糠醛、丙烯醛是有希望开发为新的土壤熏蒸剂品种。国内已经商品化的土壤熏蒸剂品种有4种,分别为氯化苦、威百亩、棉隆和硫酰氟,二甲基二硫正在登记当中。本文系统综述了上述熏蒸剂在应用、环境行为等方面的研究进展,在未来一段时间内,氯化苦、棉隆及威百亩将会占据着国内土壤熏蒸剂的主要市场。二甲基二硫的登记也将会改善国内熏蒸剂品种匮乏的局面。     

土壤厌氧消毒技术、作用机理及其防治效果的影响因素

土壤厌氧消毒(anaerobic soil disinfestation,ASD)技术作为一种环境友好的非化学土壤消毒技术能有效防治真菌、细菌、线虫和杂草等引起的土传病害。该技术已在多个国家广泛应用并被证实可显著增加作物产量。ASD技术基本流程为向土壤中添加适量有机碳源、补充足够水分和用塑料薄膜覆膜密闭2～15周。ASD技术对土传病害防控的作用机理为有机碳源分解产生的挥发性有机物对土传病原菌有抑制作用,土壤理化指标的改变(如pH降低、有机质增加等)能提升土壤质量,从而提高作物抗逆能力,土壤厌氧条件促进土壤微生物群落结构及多样性的改变,通过生物竞争和结构重建改善土壤微生态环境,降低土传病害发生风险。ASD技术对土传病害的防治效果也因有机碳源类别、土壤理化性质及覆盖薄膜的不同而存在差异。因此,优化ASD技术试验条件、深入探索ASD技术作用机理、挖掘更多有灭菌活性的挥发性物质或有益生防菌是未来ASD技术的研究重点。同时,ASD技术与其他土壤消毒技术结合使用,有助于提高其防治效果,扩大应用范围。