Variability in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) germplasm and hybrids for fatty acid profile of oil

Coconut oil, the main product of coconut fruit, is the richest source of glycerol and lauric acid and hence is called lauric oil. This paper reports the fatty acid profile of oil from 60 Talls, 14 Dwarfs, and 34 hybrids. These include collections from 13 countries covering a large coconut-growing area of the world, apart from the indigenous ones. Capillary gas chromatography analysis of oil indicated a wider variation for the fatty acid profile than earlier reported. Apart from this, for the first time other fatty acids such as behenic and lignoceric acids were detected. Oil from cultivars and hybrids of coconut has significantly differed, particularly for commercially important fatty acids such as lauric acid and unsaturated fatty acids. However, coconut oil seems to have a conserved fatty acid profile, mainly because of low unsaturated fatty acids, indicating the possibility of grouping cultivars on the basis of their fatty acid profiles. The cluster analysis based on fatty acid profile indicated grouping together of geographically and typically closely related cultivars. Cultivars with high concentrations of specific fatty acids can be of potential use for industrial exploitation, whereas those with high concentrations of short- and medium-chain fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids are more suitable for human consumption. Cultivars and hybrids with high and low values for each of the fatty acids are also identified.     

Germination patterns in coconut populations (Cocos nucifera L.) in Mexico

Lethal yellowing disease has drastically affected the coconut populations on the east coasts of Mexico and is threatening to invade all the production areas in Mexico. For the purpose of defining the existence of genetically differentiated coconut populations that eventually could have a differential response to this disease, we studied the germination patterns in 20 representative coconut populations using 90 nuts per population in three lots under similar growing conditions. Following the emergence of the leaf through the plumuler fissure, the following were calculated weekly: (1) percent emergence of the first leaf, percent mortality between germination and emergence, and percent germination capacity; (2) time required to reach 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of germination; (3) mean time to complete germination, coefficient of the rate of germination, and uniformity of germination; and (4) sigmoid curve parameters of accumulative percent germination, adjusted to a model of nonlinear regression (log scale). The results showed three population groups: (a) with early and uniform germination; (b) with early and heterogeneous germination, and (c) with late and heterogeneous germination. The same population groups were previously observed using fruit morphological traits. This suggests the presence in Mexico of three tall coconut genotypes. Late and heterogeneous populations have been almost totally eliminated by the disease and some precocious populations have been shown very low levels of mortality. This suggests a correlation between precocity and resistance. The geographical distribution of the ecotypes suggest that the mortality will be deferential when the disease arrives to the other coconut producing areas in Mexico.     

Variability in fatty acid and triacylglycerol composition of the oil of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) hybrids and their parentals

The fatty acid profiles and triacylglycerol (TAG) compositions of oils from the solid endosperm of different Philippine coconut hybrids and their parentals were determined by using gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In general, varietal differences in fatty acid composition were observed. Lauric acid (C12) content was significantly higher in the hybrids PCA 15-8 (50.45%) and PCA 15-9 (50.26%) by about 3.16% points as compared to other hybrids, and higher in Tacunan Green Dwarf (50.50%) among the parentals. Among the fatty acids, lauric acid exhibited the least variation. In general, none of the hybrids had higher fatty acid content than their parentals. The HPLC chromatogram of triacylglycerols (TAG) showed 8 major peaks which differ in carbon number (CN) by two: identified as TAG CN 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, and 44. TAGs CN 30 (4.08%) and CN 34 (19.20%) were found to be significantly higher in PCA 15-9 than in the other hybrids. CN 36 was highest (21.94-23.66%) in all hybrids and parentals. The TAG CNs varied significantly among hybrids and parents, i.e., in CN 30, 32, and 34, which are high in medium chain triacylglycerols (MCTs), and in CN 30 (for parentals only), 40, 42, and 44 (the latter two for parentals only), and none in CN 36. MCTs calculated for two hybrids and their parents ranged from 13.81% to 20.55%.     

Scope of novel and rare bulbiferous coconut palms (Cocos nucifera L.)

A naturally occurring, rare bulbiferous coconut palm was identified at the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal in Karnataka State, India, among West Coast Tall population. The palm produces only bulbil shoots in leaf axils in place of normal inflorescence. The identified palm happened to be twins in which one member was more vigorous than the other, but both of them produced only bulbil shoots instead of floral parts. Morphological and molecular studies on these palms revealed the main palm and their bulbil progenies are genetically uniform. The genetic uniformity of the twin mother palms and their bulbil progenies was confirmed through microsatellite analysis using 10 polymorphic SSR primer pairs specific to coconut and has been well demonstrated to differentiate coconut cultivars. The primary and secondary bulbil shoots were found to be capable of growing into independent plants making it possible to use them as propagules to develop a homogeneous clonal population hitherto unavailable in coconut. The bulbils showed axillary growth in 6–12th leaf axil which further again develop as secondary bulbils indicating the complete vegetative state of the palm. Comparison of shoot apices of a normal seedling with bulbil shoot revealed variation in cell growth pattern. Conservation of bulbiferous palms as a unique genetic resource needs to be taken up to utilize these rare sources for future breeding programmes, provided their seed-fertility can be restored.     

Morpho-physiological variation and phenotypicplasticity in Mexican populations of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)

We studied the pattern of variation of 19 morphological andphysiological characteristics of leaves and their phenotypicplasticity in 18 Mexican coconut populations experimentally grownunder similar conditions and in the presence of LY. The resultsshowed: (a) the existence of five ecotypes differentiatedby characteristic means and plasticity of these characteristics:Atlantic Tall, Pacific Tall 1, Pacific Tall 2, Pacific Tall 3 andMalayan Yellow Dwarf (MYD); (b) thecharacteristics that best differentiate the five ecotypes were: leaflength, number of leaves produced per unit time, and percentage ofproximal rachis in leaf; (c) the ecotypes correspond withpopulation groups previously observed in a study of morphologicalcharacterization of fruit in situ. Pacific Tall2 and MYD exhibited high resistance to LY and valuable morphologicalcharacteristics making them useful as parents in hybridizationprograms.     

History of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) in Mexico: 1539–1810

The genetic diversity of coconut palm in Mexico has arisen from introductions carried out during the Spanish colonial period (1539–1810). The interest of estimating the extent and origin of the genetic diversity motivated the investigation of sites, dates and origins of the introductions, the initial areas of production, the economic importance of the cultivation and its diffusion during the colonial era. Historical records indicate that the first introductions to the Atlantic coast were through the ports of Veracruz and Campeche around 1549 and originated from Cape Verde (West Africa) and the Caribbean islands. Introductions to the west coast were carried out through the ports of Colima and Acapulco and originated from Panama around 1539, from the Solomon Islands around 1569 and from the Philippines from 1571 onwards. Coconut was present in the west coast of Panama in pre-Columbian times, but its origin and introduction date is unknown. Commercial plantations of economic importance were established on the west coast stimulating further introductions and a wider diffusion of the plant during the 16th and 17th centuries. This diffusion may have brought about genetic flow between ecotypes from different origins. No commercial plantations were established on the east coast during the 16th and 17th centuries. Prohibitions of the cultivation of this plant brought about a halt in development on the west coast during the 18th century. This historical knowledge has enabled us to select key sites in which to gather samples to establish germplasm collections.     

Genetic characterization of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) varieties conserved in Vietnam through SCoT marker-based polymorphisms

Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution - Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) production sustains millions of smallholder farmers and their families around the globe, and also powers a thriving industry of...     

11S and 7S globulins of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.): purification and characterization

Total globulins extracted with 0.4 M NaCl in buffer from coconut endosperm separated into two peaks on gel filtration: peak I corresponding to 11S globulin or cocosin and peak II to 7S globulin with native molecular weights of 326 000 and 156 000, respectively. The percent composition of total globulins was estimated to be 11S, 86% and 7S, 14%. On SDS-PAGE, cocosin resolved into two closely migrating bands at approximately 34 000 (acidic polypeptide) and another set of 2 bands at 24 000 (basic polypeptide). Each set consisted of one darkly stained band and one lightly stained band. The 7S globulin consisted of three bands of 16 000, 22 000, and 24 000. Three isoforms of cocosin were identified after anion exchange chromatography. Cocosin, but not the 7S, was found to have disulfide bonds. Using periodic acid-Schiff's reagent, all of the bands of cocosin on SDS-PAGE were positive for carbohydrate. However, when con A-peroxidase was used, only the basic polypeptide stained positively for carbohydrate. For the 7S globulin, no carbohydrate group was detected using the PAS and con A-peroxidase tests. The 7S globulin was easily extracted with 0.10-0.15 M NaCl, whereas cocosin was extracted with 0.35 M NaCl. The N-terminal amino acid sequences of the 34 k band and 24 k band of cocosin were SVRSVNEFRXE and GLEETQ, respectively, and that of the 7S was EQEDPELQK.     

Determination of phospholipids in olive oil by 31P NMR spectroscopy

A nondestructive analytical method based on NMR spectroscopy was developed for the determination of phospholipids in olive oil. The phospholipids extracted from virgin olive oil with a mixture of ethanol/water (2:1 v/v) were identified and quantified by high resolution (31)P NMR spectroscopy. The main phospholipids found in olive oil were phosphatidic acid, lyso-phosphatidic acid, and phosphatidylinositol. Validation of the (31)P NMR methodology for quantitative analysis of phospholipids in olive oil was performed. Sensitivity was satisfactory with detection limits of 0.25-1.24 mumol /mL. In addition, the composition of fatty acids in phospholipids model compounds and those in olive oil samples was estimated by employing one- and two-dimensional (1)H NMR. The results indicated that the fatty acid composition in phospholipids and triacylglycerols of olive oil was similar.     

Determination of water content in olive oil by 31P NMR spectroscopy

A method for moisture determination in olive oil using 31P NMR spectroscopy is developed. This method is based on the replacement of the hydrogen atoms of water molecules with the tagging agents 2-chloro-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaphospholane and diphenylphosphinic chloride. Both reagents were successful in determining moisture in olive oil. However, only the second reagent provided a clean and instantaneous reaction under mild condition with no side reactions as observed with the first reagent. A study comparison was made to assess the agreement between the present analytical NMR method and the well-established methods of Karl Fischer titration.     

Solubilization of selected free fatty acids in palm oil by biodegradable ethoxylated surfactants

The solubilization of three major components, viz., palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids, in palm oil by ethoxylated surfactants was investigated. The results were analyzed in terms of the molecular properties of surfactants and free fatty acids (FFAs). It was found that the solubilities of these FFAs in various micellar solutions depend not only on their octanol-water partition coefficients (Kow), but also on their physicochemical properties. The study on the solubilization kinetics was conducted by choosing palmitic acid as a model solubilizate and Tergitol 15-S-7 as the model surfactant. A first-order film diffusion model, which accounts for the direct uptake of organic molecules at a solid surface into surfactant micelles, was adopted to analyze the effect of surfactant on dissolution of palmitic acid. It was observed that the presence of surfactant reduced the mass-transfer coefficient. Instead, the overall mass-transfer rate was enhanced because of the much higher driving force from the increased solubilization capacity.     

Analysis of free fatty acids in whey products by solid-phase microextraction

To evaluate the impact of Cheddar cheese starter cultures on the level of free fatty acids in liquid whey, a solid-phase microextraction (SPME) technique was utilized. The determination of response factors relative to an internal standard and the verification of linearity over a wide concentration range allowed for the quantitation of free fatty acids in experimentally produced liquid whey and in a wide range of dry whey ingredients. Results indicated that whey produced with a Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis starter culture contained the highest level of total free fatty acids with significantly higher levels of lauric, myristic, and palmitic acids. Significant declines in oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acid occurred during storage. Commercial whey ingredients demonstrated a linear increase in free fatty acids with increasing percent protein, except for whey protein isolate, which had the lowest concentration. The use of SPME for the rapid analysis of free fatty acids in whey products should allow for further research to determine the importance of these compounds on the quality and stability of whey products.     

菜籽油皂脚中游离脂肪酸分子蒸馏分离模拟

该文利用分子蒸馏模型模拟分离皂脚中脂肪酸,进而为后续高效率制备生物柴油奠定基础.根据建立的分子蒸馏模型和物化参数的估算,对菜籽油皂脚中游离脂肪酸的分离进行模拟,并与实际试验数据进行了比较.研究结果表明:该模型在模拟分离菜籽油皂脚中游离脂肪酸时的结果与试验结果曲线趋势相近.随着蒸馏温度的增加,蒸馏量增大,蒸馏量模拟值与实验值的相对误差不超过16%.随着蒸馏温度的增加,重组分中游离脂肪酸含量不断降低,试验结果的脂肪酸浓度都大于模拟值,而相对误差随温度升高不断降低,蒸馏温度为453 K时较蒸馏温度为423 K时,相对误差降低近50%.     

Rapid determination of free fatty acids in poultry feed lipid extracts by SB-ATR FTIR spectroscopy

A simple, rapid, and reproducible method has been developed for the quantitative determination of free fatty acid (FFA) content in lipids extracted from poultry feeds by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy with the use of a single-bounce attenuated total reflectance (SB-ATR) accessory. An FTIR calibration curve was prepared by gravimetrically adding oleic acid (15-37%) to pure refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) canola oil and measuring the area of the COOH absorption band at 1710 cm-1. The oil from each of 12 poultry feed formulations was extracted using conventional Soxhlet extraction, and after evaporation of the solvent, the FFA content was determined by the conventional AOCS titrimetric procedure and by the SB-ATR/FTIR method. The SB-ATR/FTIR FFA predictions were related to those determined by the AOCS titrimetric method by linear regression, producing an R value of 0.999 and a SD of +/-0.28% FFA. Time-course spectra collected as lipids extracted into hexane indicated that a 15 min extraction was adequate to obtain a representative sample for FFA determination, with further extraction resulting in little, if any, change in the proportion of FFA in the lipid extract. Only a small volume of the hexane extract ( approximately 20 mL) yielded sufficient material for the SB-ATR/FTIR analysis. Thus, by shortening the extraction time and taking a small sample so as to reduce solvent removal time, the SB-ATR/FTIR procedure provides a very simple and rapid means of determining the FFA content of poultry feed lipids.     

Characterization of phosphorus fractions in mountain soils of the Bavarian Alps by 31P NMR spectroscopy

NaOH-extracts from different soils of the alpine and shrub zones at the Schneibstein (Nationalpark Berchtesgaden) between 1790–2275 m were studied using ³¹P NMR spectroscopy. NaOH (0.5 M) dissolved 29–49% of P_t. Orthophosphate monoesters were the dominant fraction (41–79%). Orthophosphate diesters comprised 10–20%. A higher diester content (36%) was found in a hydromorphic soil. Inorganic phosphate comprised 5–27%, depending on soil pH. So, in acid horizons (pH 4.45 and 5.05) 27 and 23% were detected, whereas in horizons with higher pH (> 6) only small amounts (5–8%) were found. Pyrophosphate and polyphosphates were found in traces. Phosphonates (ca. 6%) occurred mainly in acid soils.     

Hypolipidemic effect of oils with balanced amounts of fatty acids obtained by blending and interesterification of coconut oil with rice bran oil or sesame oil

Blended oils comprising coconut oil (CNO) and rice bran oil (RBO) or sesame oil (SESO) with saturated fatty acid/monounsaturated fatty acid/polyunsaturated fatty acid at a ratio of 1:1:1 and polyunsaturated/saturated ratio of 0.8-1 enriched with nutraceuticals were prepared. Blended oils (B) were subjected to interesterification reaction using sn-1,3 specific Lipase from Rhizomucor miehei. Fatty acid composition and nutraceutical contents of the blended oil were not affected by interesterification reaction. Male Wistar rats were fed with AIN-76 diet containing 10% fat from CNO, RBO, SESO, CNO+RBO blend (B), CNO+SESO(B), CNO+RBO interesterified (I), or CNO+SESO(I) for 60 days. Serum total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triacylglycerols (TAGs) were reduced by 23.8, 32.4, and 13.9%, respectively, in rats fed CNO+RBO(B) and by 20.5, 34.1, and 12.9%, respectively, in rats fed CNO+SESO(B) compared to rats given CNO. Rats fed interesterified oils showed a decrease in serum TC, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and TAGs in CNO+RBO(I) by 35, 49.1, and 23.2 and by 33.3, 47, and 19.8% in CNO+SESO(I), respectively, compared to rats given CNO. Compared to rats fed CNO+RBO blended oils, rats on CNO+RBO interesterified oil showed a further decrease of 14.6, 24.7, and 10% in TC, LDL-C, and TAG. Rats fed CNO+SESO interesterified oils showed a decrease in serum TC, LDL-C, and TAG by 16.2, 19.6, and 7.8%, respectively, compared to rats given blended oils of CNO+SESO (B). Liver lipid analysis also showed significant change in the TC and TAG concentration in rats fed blended and interesterified oils of CNO+RBO and CNO+SESO compared to the rats given CNO. The present study suggests that feeding fats containing blended oils with balanced fatty acids lowers serum and liver lipids. Interesterified oils prepared using Lipase have a further lowering effect on serum and liver lipids even though the fatty acid composition of blended and interesterified oils remained same. These studies indicated that the atherogenic potentials of a saturated fatty acid containing CNO can be significantly decreased by blending with an oil rich in unsaturated lipids in appropriate amounts and interesterification of blended oil.     

Comparison and analysis of fatty acids, sterols, and tocopherols in eight vegetable oils

The similarities and differences of eight vegetable oils produced in China were investigated in terms of their fatty acid, sterol, and tocopherol compositions and subsequent data processing by hierarchical clustering analysis and principal component analysis. The lipid profiles, acquired by analytical techniques tailored to each lipid class, revealed great similarities among the fatty acid profiles of corn and sesame oil as well as few differences in their sterol profiles. It turns out that not only was there great similarity between the fatty acid profiles of corn oil and sesame oil but also there were not too many differences for the sterol profiles. Sunflower and tea-seed oil showed similar sterol compositions, while the tea-seed oil tocopherol was very similar to palm oil. The results demonstrated that the use of only one of these profiles was unreliable for indentifying oil origin and authenticity. In contrast, the use of the sterol or tocopherol profile together with the fatty acid profile more accurately discriminates these oils.     

Gas chromatographic determination of fatty acids and sterols in orange juice

A gas chromatographic (GC) method has been developed for the simultaneous quantitation of fatty acids and sterols in orange juice, using a bonded phase fused silica capillary column of intermediate polarity, splitless automatic injection, and flame ionization detection. Sample preparation has been simplified by using 1 g C-18 adsorbent in a disposable minicolumn to extract 2 mL orange juice. Methylation of fatty acids and silylation of the sterols were carried out in the eluted extract (low polarity lipid fraction). The method precision was 7%; recoveries ranged from 83 to 113%. The precision of the injection technique was 2%. Seven major fatty acids and 5 sterols in orange juice were quantitated by the GC method and identified by GC/mass spectrometry. Quantitative data for several orange juice samples indicated that the levels of the compounds of interest were in the 1.3-72.0 mg/L range. The results demonstrate that bonded phase fused silica capillary GC has great versatility and potential for the quantitative determination of fatty acids and sterols.     

Improving Sensitivity of Solution 31P NMR Analysis in Australian Xeralfs

Phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance (³¹P NMR) spectroscopy is widely used to identify and quantify phosphorus (P) forms in soil. This study aimed to determine whether narrowing the soil to extractant sodium hydroxide–ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (NaOH-EDTA) ratio from 1:20 to values as low as 1:4 would improve sensitivity of solution ³¹P NMR spectroscopy without degrading resolution or quantitation. Four Australian soils were tested using four ratios. The narrowest ratio of 1:4 gave the best quality NMR spectra in terms of signal-to-noise ratio. Peak resolution was not degraded on narrowing the ratio. There was no clear effect of narrowing the extraction ratio on extraction efficiency or the distribution of signal among chemical shift regions (orthophosphate, monoester P, diester P, and pyrophosphate). We conclude that a ratio of 1:4 improved NMR analysis for these particular soils and should be considered for other soils, particularly low-P soils, where NMR sensitivity is limiting.     

Quantitation of fatty acids, sterols, and tocopherols in turpentine (Pistacia terebinthus Chia) growing wild in Turkey

The chemical composition (fatty acids, tocopherols, and sterols) of the oil from 14 samples of turpentine (Pistacia terebinthus L.) fruits is presented in this study. The oil content of the samples varied in a relatively small range between 38.4 g/100 g and 45.1 g/100 g. The dominating fatty acid of the oil is oleic acid, which accounted for 43.0 to 51.3% of the total fatty acids. The total content of vitamin E active compounds in the oils ranged between 396.8 and 517.7 mg/kg. The predominant isomers were alpha- and gamma-tocopherol, with approximate equal amounts between about 110 and 150 mg/kg. The seed oil of P. terebinthus also contained different tocotrienols, with gamma-tocotrienol as the dominate compound of this group, which amounted to between 79 and 114 mg/kg. The total content of sterols of the oils was determined to be between 1341.3 and 1802.5 mg/kg, with beta-sitosterol as the predominent sterol that accounted for more than 80% of the total amount of sterols. Other sterols in noteworthy amounts were campesterol, Delta5-avenasterol, and stigmasterol, which came to about 3-5% of the total sterols.