Nachhaltgerechte Technikgestaltung in der Forstwirtschaft — ein Modellansatz

Zusammenfassung Forsttechnische Verfahren sind selbst nicht nachhaltig, beeinflussen aber die nachhaltige Forstbewirtschaftung in vielf?ltiger Weise: Sie k?nnen einerseits direkten Einflu? auf Umwelt und Gesellschaft ausüben, andererseits indirekt die Leistungen der Forstwirtschaft oder die Wirkungen des Waldes st?ren oder f?rdern. Um sie umfassend zu beurteilen, müssen neben den klassischen Kriterien “Funktionsf?higkeit” und “Effizienz” auch die “?koeffizienz” und die ?kologische, soziale und die ergonomische “Vertr?glichkeit” beachtet werden. Bei der daran anschlie?enden Entscheidung für ein Verfahrenoder die Nullvariante - verlangen verschiedene Hürden wie Skalenniveaus, Werte, Restriktionen, Zielkonzept des Betriebes und Unsicherheiten bezüglich Wirkungen der Verfahren oder künftiger Entwicklungen nach einem umfassenden Modell, für das ein Vorschlag unterbreitet wird. Schlie?lich wird postuliert, da? sich unter anderem an der im Wald eingesetzten Technik entscheiden wird, ob künftig den Forstleuten noch die Kompetenz zugestanden wird, den Wald zu bewirtschaften. Summary Technical processes in forestry are not sustainable as such, but affect sustainable forest management in many ways. They may have a direct effect on the environment and society or they may indirectly either interfere with or promote benefits from forestry and the effects of the forest. For a comprehensive assessment of these effects “eco-efficiency” and ecological, social and ergonomie “compatibility” have to be taken into consideration apart from classical criteria such as “functionality” and “efficiency”. When deciding in favour of a process - or the control variate - various obstacles such as scale levels, values, restrictions, operational objectives and uncertainties regarding the effects of processes or future developments call for a comprehensive model, as proposed in this study. Finally, the postulate is advanced that it will also depend on the technics used in the forest whether forestry experts will be considered sufficiently competent to continue to manage our forests in the future.     

Challenges of Organizing Private Forest Owners in Serbia

Small-scale forestry in Serbia is characterized by high fragmentation of properties, a large number of parcels and forest owners. Numerous activities for private forest owners in Serbia supported by the State, FAO and CEPF have resulted in an increased interest of owners in forming private forest owners’ associations (PFOA). The goal of this paper is to explore preconditions that are necessary for organizing private forest owners in Serbia into effective associations. In order to reach this goal, results of PRIFORT project were used. The over-arching research questions of this paper are: “What is the level of interest among forest owners in forming owners’ associations?”; “Why has forest owner interest in organizing developed so slowly?” and “What are the necessary preconditions for the development of private forest owners’ organizations in the country?” In order to answer these questions, quantitative survey with 42 close, open and Likert scale questions was conducted. Sample size was determined following Malhotra’s proportion method and, in total, 350 private forest owners, from nine municipalities were interviewed. Results of this paper show that majority of respondents are very little or not at all aware of existing legislation. Almost half of respondents consider that their interests are not represented well. Although about 50% of interviewed forest owners miss interest organization, only 0,3% are members of PFOA. More than 70% are ready to join association, if it would provide some economic advantages.     

FORESTAR：A decision—support system for multi—objective forest management in Northeast China

Past monoculture forestry in China has contributed to countrywide ecological disasters and economic difficulties in forestry regions. China‘s new forestry programs, Natural Forest Conservation Program and Returning Farmlands to Forests Program, provide opportunities for ecosystem management of mountain forests in China. A decision support system, FORE-STAR, has been developed for better managing and protecting natural forests in Changbai Mountain area. It uses GIS-based forest inventory data at a scale of forestry bureau. The first version contains two sub-modules: forest operation and forest res-toration. Under each sub-module, users can compare several decision options and make optimal choices. It can help field for-esters, forest managers, and policy makers make multi-objective and consistent decisions in planning forest management at hierarchical administrative scales.     

Strategies on natural forest protection of collective forest area in minority nationality community in China

In the recent 20 years, it is a trend that forest will be distributed to villagers to manage in the world. Also in China, “forestry three determinations” has been carried out since 1980, and many new forestry devolutions have been put forward to and come into being. To face the fact of overusing up natural forest to result in the deterioration of ecology environment, the strategy of natural forest protection project (NFPP) is raised after the heavy flood in 1998. Now, it is paid close attention to systematically study to carry out the strategies of NFPP in collective forest area, especially in the community of minority nationalities. Based on the case of forest resource management in Datu Miao Village, the experience of its forest management in the past is analyzed and the strategies of NFPP in collective forest area are put forward. Foundation item: This project is a part of research project “forest devolution management of IFAD/CIFOR” Biography: L{upuo} Ming-can (1961-), maie, associate professor, vice director of post-graduate school of Southwest Forestry College, Kunming 650224, P.R. China. Responsible editor: Song Funan     

Perceptions of “close-to-nature forestry” by German and Japanese groups: inquiry using visual materials of “cut” and “dead” wood

It is generally believed that forests are perceived differently according to the cultural background of the visitor. Different cultural groups tend to have diverse perceptions of tree species, landscapes, or gardens. In this research project, we conducted interviews of German and Japanese groups (each group consisting of three or more people), to identify their perspectives in exploring the theme of “cut” and “dead” wood. For this purpose, we interviewed 20 groups from each cultural background (40 data sets in total). Each group was asked to categorize 36 pictures chosen from photographic contests. The results were examined with PCA and cluster analysis. The quantified results of the two national groups highlighted the dichotomy of the cut and dead wood relationship. The method and materials used gave robust results. Differences between the two groups were identified by their perceptions of cut and dead wood. The results are insightful from a methodological and political rationale. First, new insights were gained by adopting group-based interviews using pictures from photographic contests. Research about public perceptions in forest science is often dominated by a focus on verbal inquiry. This study explored similar questions, using visual materials. The interviews consisted of visual materials to overcome bias in languages or the question order. Second, the results indicated the influence of “close-to-nature forestry” policy on public perceptions. While German society has a wide practice of leaving dead wood in forests based on their close-to-nature forestry policy, there is no equivalent Japanese concept. Although Japan and Germany both face pressures for economic restructuring and public participation, the difference in public perception of forestry can lead to a difference in acceptance for the same policy. If such differences are to exist, we can observe that the legitimacy of forestry in the two countries is reconstructed in different ways.     

The German struggle between the ‘Bodenreinertragslehre’ (land rent theory) and ‘Waldreinertragslehre’ (theory of the highest revenue) belongs to the past — but what is left?

The beginning of the land rent theory is closely related to the German forest economists Friedrich Wilhelm Leopold Pfeil and Johann Christian Hundeshagen (1828). It was further developed by Gottlob König (1864), Johann Heinrich v. Thünen, Max Robert Preßler, Gustav Heyer, Max Endres and in particular by Martin Faustmann (1849). His 1849 published and well known formula may be seen as the center of the land rent theory. However, the application of this concept demanded a considerable change of forest management practice due to the reduction of usual rotations and stocking density. Eventually, the land rent theory conflicted with the principle of sustained yield which had become the central idea of forestry in Germany in the 19th century. Since forestry under German conditions did not start as an investment on bare forest land, but had to manage existing forests under the principle of sustainability, the theory of the highest revenue seemed to be a more appropriate guideline for forestry. However, the maximization of the highest revenue assumed a marginal interest rate of 0% because the time span between input and output was not considered. Besides that, this principle also conflicted with the reality of forestry, because the scarcity of financial funds was not regarded. So far, both theories have not delivered solutions useful to real forest economic decision problems in Germany. Using an example from Lower Saxony, it is demonstrated that considering the objective of sustainability leads to results which are in accordance with the reality and the economic theory.     

Hillside forest land as a safety net for local people in a mountain village in West Java: an examination of differences in the significance of national and private lands

 In Kemang, a mountain village in West Java, Indonesia, the local people call the hillsides pasir, a term which includes both privately owned hillside land or nationally owned forest land. It is apparent that the national forest lands function as a social safety net, serving as land where the middle-class and the poor can conduct “informal” cultivation, through temporary agreements with the state forestry corporation, or even “illegal” cultivation without permission. In this study, the households cultivating on national forest lands were identified as: (1) having most household members living together; (2) having a relatively young head person; (3) cultivating a small area of rice field; (4) having participated in the former perhutanan sosial system; (5) being dependent on the income from hillside land; (6) taking advantage of the rare opportunities for off-farm income; and (7) having a low total income. Meanwhile, the talun-huma system is dominant on privately owned hillside land, where a part of the talun, or tree garden, is cleared for use as a swidden on a 30-year rotation. In such cases, the land functions as a safety net only for the limited number of people who are permitted access to the land. The function of the privately owned hillside land, through the mutual-aid system, should not be overestimated; it is probably less important than national forest land in terms of income redistribution. It is recommended that the government of Indonesia consider the possibility of formally ensuring the long-term rights of local people to utilize the national forest lands in Java. Received: April 6, 2001 / Accepted: October 24, 2002 Acknowledgments This paper is in part a result of the research activities of the Core University Program in Applied Bioscience between the University of Tokyo and Bogor Agricultural University, sponsored by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). The authors would like to express their thanks to Prof. Sumiaki Iwamoto, the University of Tokyo, for his kind help. Correspondence to:M. Inoue     

Ecological fragility and forestry strategies of Heilongjiang Basin

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Challenging the Traditional Forestry Extension Model: Insights from the Woods Forum Program in Massachusetts

Traditional forestry education and outreach activities tend to focus on transfer-of-knowledge, often through workshops initiated and led by professionals to “teach” landowners about forest management and conservation. Less than 10 percent of family forest owners in the US have a management plan, participated in cost-share programs, certified their forest land, or hold a conservation easement, suggesting flaws in this traditional model. Some researchers and practitioners have suggested the need for a paradigm shift away from transfer-of-knowledge to more facilitative, participatory approaches, among which peer learning has gained growing attention and is supported by a number of behavioral theories. By analyzing data from participant feedback of a peer learning pilot program in Massachusetts and a follow-up mail survey, this paper examines the perceived usefulness of peer-to-peer interactions and the effect of peer learning over time. The results suggest peer learning did not only appeal to landowners with forestry background, but also succeeded in attracting inexperienced landowners. Participants rated their peer-to-peer experience positively. The retention of information obtained through the program was reflected by participants’ ability to correctly identify foresters, land trust organizations, and reasonable sources of forestry or land management advice. Participants also shared a strong willingness to spread information obtained through peer learning. This study contributes to the identification of potential barriers to and opportunities for peer learning, informs forestry extension efforts in the US and beyond, and highlights the importance of integrating peer learning into the broader forestry education, technical assistance, and financial incentive programs to increase participation and promote sustainable forest management and conservation.     

Crown condition as a function of soil,site and tree characteristics

One of the aims of this work is to describe how the target variable “tree vitality” in terms of needle loss is affected by other explanatory variables. To describe such a relationship in a realistic way, we use generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs) which allow to take spatial correlation of the data into account and in addition allow the inclusion of explanatory variables as predictors with the possibility of having non-linear effects. The GAMMs are fitted in a Bayesian framework using Markov chain Monte Carlo techniques. Data are available for two years 1988 and 1994. We select a set of best explanatory variables from a large set of variables including tree-specific variables, such as species, age, nutrients in the needles and site-specific variables such as altitude, relief type, soil depth and content of different nutrients in the top soil. In the two models for 1988 and 1994, different sets of explanatory variables were selected as best predictors. In both models, the effects of explanatory variables allowed a plausible interpretation. For example, the site-specific variables such as relief and soil depth were significant predictors, since these factors determine how well water and nutrient supply is balanced at a specific site. The selected sets of explanatory variables differed between 1988 and 1994, giving an indication of a possible change in the main causes of forest deterioration between 1988 and 1994. From the set of nutrient variables measured in the soil and in the needles, in 1988 altitude a.s.l. and magnesium supply were among the explanatory variables, in 1994 a combination of Al in the soil and the N/K-ratio (in the needles) was selected in the model. In 1988 altitude a.s.l. was among the most important predictors in the model. This is in contrast to 1994 where altitude was not selected. This may have to do with the fact that in the early phase of forest health monitoring (1988) one of the main causes of forest deterioration was magnesium deficiency. Later on this may have changed to a combination of soil acidification and nitrogen eutrophication. Thus by using an adequate model such as the GAMM, sets of explanatory variables for needle loss may be identified. By fitting two GAMMs, with different sets of “best” predictors, at two time points 1988 and 1994, we can detect changes in these sets of “best” predictors over time. This allows us to use the monitoring data with the tree vitality indicator crown condition/needle loss as a tool for forest health management, which may involve decisions about concrete counter measures like e.g. forest liming.     

Threshold price as an economic indicator for sustainable forest management under stochastic log price

We seek the minimum harvest age and threshold price for sustaining forest management by constructing a stochastic dynamic programming model using a geometric mean-reverting process for log price dynamics. Three decisions—“Wait for harvest”, “Harvest & Plant”, and “Harvest & Abandon”—are assumed. The applied growth simulator is deterministic. Using the monthly time series data of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) log price from 1975 to 2006, our analyses show that when the reverted mean is lower than the cost, the minimum harvest age increases as the current price approaches the threshold price, then declines. In other cases with a higher reverted mean, the minimum harvest age increases as the current or initial log price decreases. When the initial log price approaches the threshold price, the minimum harvest age tends to increase. These phenomena can be used to evaluate the possibility of management abandonment under a stochastic situation of log price dynamics.     

Concepts and perceptions of biodiversity in community forestry,Nepal

International and national development programs in Nepal place high priority on management of forests for biodiversity. Communities are expected to embrace and cooperate in this endeavour for biodiversity conservation, yet little research has been carried out to understand community viewpoints on biodiversity conservation, or even to ascertain people’s understanding of the concept of biodiversity. This paper explores perceptions and concepts related to biodiversity and its conservation held by people involved in community forestry in Nepal. Data were obtained from in-depth individual interviews and focus group discussions carried out in two contrasting geographical districts. The results show that the Western term ‘biodiversity’, translated into Nepalese as jaiwik bibidhata, is new and confusing to most forest people, who interpret the term in a variety of ways. People’s perceptions of biodiversity vary widely and a considerable gap exists between policy-makers and forest users in the understanding and interpretation of this Nepalese term and its related concepts. These findings have important implications for the design and implementation of development programs and in formulation of forest policy in Nepal.     

The potential for developing a normal age-structure in managed ancient woodland at a local scale in three English counties

This paper describes a model for assessing the potential forsustained management of ancient woodland at the local landscapescale, based on the premise that a ‘normal’ foreststructure is the best option for integrating nature conservationwith provision of a regular supply of timber. The concept of‘normality’ is applied to clusters of small ancientwoods which are considered together and treated as a whole. Data on ancient woodland distribution are used from West Sussex,Essex and North Yorkshire. At ten sample points within eachcounty the woodland area within a 25-km² block centred on thepoint was considered to see whether a normal forest structurecould be created and maintained by sustained management usinglikely minimum felling rates and average rotation lengths forthe main species for both high forest and coppice systems. Themodel was also tested for situations where small woods or woodswith conservation status were excluded from the system, as wellas for different minimum felling rates. The areas proposed forfelling within ancient semi-natural woods currently listed withinthe Woodland Grant Scheme (WGS) (II) are higher than can bemaintained in the longer term in West Sussex and Essex. The model provides a preliminary method for setting the contextof individual forestry schemes withn the wooded landscape asa whole.     

Transitioning from wild collection to forest cultivation of indigenous medicinal forest plants in eastern North America is constrained by lack of profitability

The forest flora of eastern North America includes many herbaceous plant species traded in domestic and international medicinal markets. Conservation concerns surrounding wild-collection exist and transitioning to cultivation in agroforestry systems has potential economic and ecological benefits. Costs and revenues associated with adopting forest cultivation were modeled for eight North American medicinal forest plants. Sensitivity analysis examined profit potential in relation to (1) discount rates; (2) propagation methods; (3) prices; (4) growing period; (5) production costs; and (6) yields. Results indicate that intensive husbandry of six of eight species would be unprofitable at recent (1990–2005) price levels. Exceptions are American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.), and under certain circumstances (e.g., maximum historic prices, low production costs) goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.). Direct marketing to consumers and retailers might improve grower profits, but is undermined by the availability of cheaper, wild-collected product. We suggest that the North American medicinal plant industry could play a key role in facilitating any transition from wild to cultivated product, perhaps through development of a certification and labeling program that brands “forest cultivated” products. This could generate price premiums, to be passed along to growers, but must be accompanied by aggressive consumer education. A “forest cultivated” certification and labeling program has potential to benefit industry and consumers if assurances regarding product identity and quality are a central feature. Plant species that are not viable candidates for commercial cultivation due to limited consumer demand (i.e., species with “shallow,” erratic markets) are best addressed through proactive government and industry initiatives involving targeted harvester education programs.     

Application of real options theory to forestry investment analysis

This paper demonstrates the utility of the real options approach to forestry investment analysis. The main objectives are to discuss the real option theory and show how it can be adopted to model uncertainty and managerial flexibility in forest management and investment. Secondly, we show how to calculate the option values of selected options that may be available to managers of forest industry firms. The paper provides an empirical application, which compares a forestry investment using the static Faustmann model and the real options approach. Four management options are used for the real options approach: an option to delay reforestation, an option to expand the size of the wood processing plant, an option to abandon the processing plant if timber prices fall below a certain level or due to corporate take-over, and multiple options that evaluated all three options together. All options were evaluated using the binomial option-pricing model, where timber values are assumed to follow a multiplicative binomial process. The results show that the Faustmann analysis rejected the investments as unprofitable, while the option analysis showed that all three options were highly valuable if exercised. When real options are considered, the traditional Faustmann model for assessing the profitability of a forestry investment may fail to provide an adequate decision-making framework because it does not properly value management's ability to adjust to shocks in the economy, as well as risks and uncertainty.     

Traditional agroforestry systems of multi-crop “milpa” and “chichipera” cactus forest in the arid Tehuacán Valley,Mexico: their management and role in people’s subsistence

Agroforestry systems (AFS) derived from the cactus forest “chichipera” and cultivated with “milpa”, the traditional multi-crop system of maize-beans-squash were studied in the Tehuacán Valley, Mexico. Plant management types practiced by people, role of agricultural and forest resources in households’ subsistence, and consequences of changes in AFS were investigated through ethnobotanical, ecological, and economic approaches. People maintain in this AFS 122 plant species that provide useful products for 14 different purposes. Nearly 90% of useful plants are native to the region, representing 54% of all plant species recorded in the chichipera forest. Management strategies were identified occurring on 63 species at landscape, parcel, and individual plant levels. About 67% of managed plant species are left standing during clearance of vegetation; 35% are transplanted to the parcels’ surrounding area, 32% receive particular protection, and 10 species from other areas are cultivated inside the fields. During years of higher rainfall (~745 mm) AFS supply nearly 75% of the maize grain and 50% of the maize straw used as fodder by households. AFS with intermediate vegetation cover have higher economic value than monocultures and forest. However, plots with low forest cover and monocultures are progressively more common as consequence of socio-cultural processes. Local traditional ecological knowledge and management techniques are crucial for managing resilience of these AFS.     

Concept and feasibility study for the integrated evaluation of environmental monitoring data in forests

In the 1970s unexpected forest damages, called “new type of forest damage” or “forest decline”, were observed in Germany and other European countries. The Federal Republic of Germany and the German Federal States implemented a forest monitoring system in the early 1980s, in order to monitor and assess the forest condition. Due to the growing public awareness of possible adverse effects of air pollution on forests, in 1985 the ICP Forests was launched under the convention on long-range transboundary air pollution (CLRTAP) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE). The German experience in forest monitoring was a base for the implementation of the European monitoring system. In 2001 the interdisciplinary case study “concept and feasibility study for the integrated evaluation of environmental monitoring data in forests”, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, concentrated on in-depths evaluations of the German data of forest monitoring. The objectives of the study were: (a) a reliable assessment of the vitality and functioning of forest ecosystems, (b) the identification and quantification of factors influencing forest vitality, and (c) the clarification of cause-effect-relationships leading to leaf/needle loss. For these purposes additional data from external sources were acquired: climate and deposition, for selected level I plots tree growth data, as well as data on groundwater quality. The results show that in particular time series analysis (crown condition, tree growth, and tree ring analysis), in combination with climate and deposition are valuable and informative, as well as integrated evaluation of soil, tree nutrition and crown condition data. Methods to combine information from the extensive and the intensive monitoring, and to transfer process information to the large scale should be elaborated in future.

New forest owners and owners-to-be: apples and oranges?

This literature review focuses on two groups of landowners in the US and Finland: those current family owners who have recently become forest owners, with a relatively short duration of ownership, and private individuals who can be expected to become forest owners in the future are compared. The former group is called “new owners,” and the latter “future owners,” respectively. This study aims to find what can be concluded about future owners from studies of new owners based on the assumption that new owners are interpreted to represent future owners in these studies. The data consists of eight studies conducted after the mid 90s.