Forest property rights in the frame of public policies and societal change

Property rights over natural resources became a distinct area of inquiry in environmental economics and policy in the last decades, but their role has not yet been investigated thoroughly. Transition countries represent an excellent material of analysis of various policies and institutional developments concerning the regime of use and management of natural resources. The processes of societal transformation had deep impacts on the forestry sector, entailing land reforms and subsequent changes to its institutional and organisational framework. This paper presents an analysis of the reciprocal relationship between the evolving forest property rights and the conduct of policy and economic actors, in connection with their outcomes. The theoretical framework consists of institutional economics, whose core concept is that patterns of interaction between institutions and actors produce physical outcomes, assessable by criteria such as equity and efficiency. The study concentrated on three distinct periods and the applicable property regimes. Within this framework, the impacts of the characteristics of property regimes and the general framework of socio-economic conditions on the exercise of property rights were analysed. The analysis of the conduct of forest owners in relation to the institutional design was completed by the analysis of the other actors influential for land reforms. Romanian forestry sector, in evolution from the period shortly before World War II to present, represents the case of the study. Research data were collected by interviewing/questioning, participant observation and literature review. They were analysed through an integrated method of content analysis and a matrix analysis. An important conclusion is that not only the regime of forest property is determinant for the outcomes of resource use and management, but also the general settings in which they are embedded. Another essential point is that land reforms driven by either efficiency or equity rationales are not mere diversions of the benefit stream, but complex processes with serious implications for the status of the resource at stake.     

The Values and Objectives of Private Forest Owners and Their Influence on Forestry Behaviour: The Implications for Entrepreneurship

There are many factors that determine what forestry activities forest owners carry out in their forest properties and that influence whether forest owners engage in entrepreneurial activity. This paper explores whether the values and objectives of forest owners influence their forestry behaviour and their engagement in entrepreneurial activity. This is done through a review of the literature on private forest owners’ typologies based on owners’ objectives. The review reveals that typologies typically divide forest owners into two main groups. The primary objective of the first group of owners is production (of wood and non-wood goods and services) usually, although not exclusively, so as to generate economic activity. The primary objective of the second group is consumption (of wood and non-wood goods and services). There is a tacit assumption in the studies reviewed that goals and objectives do influence forestry behaviour but few studies have actually assessed whether this is the case. The general finding is that forest owners whose objectives are timber production and who are business-oriented are more likely to manage and harvest their stands. No research focusing on the link between owners’ objective and wider entrepreneurial activity in forests was found.     

Non-industrial Private Forestry Service Markets in a Flux: Results from a Qualitative Analysis on Finland

Previous research on European forestry service markets is scarce and mainly focused on analysing external market environment and modelling of timber selling behaviour of non-industrial forest owners (NIPFs). In this study, we aim to create a broader understanding about business perspectives of forestry service markets covering the whole array of market and institutional based services offered to the NIPFs in case of Finland. The more specific empirical objective of the paper is to describe market drivers and underlying challenges in existing and potential service business models based on the concepts of service-dominant logic and dynamic capabilities. Using a qualitative approach and 22 thematic expert interviews in service organisations, we strive to analyse the drivers and opportunities for creating new services within the NIPF market and also build insight in possible barriers for new service value creation. According to our results, the ongoing structural changes offer new opportunities to change traditional mindsets and search for new types of offerings that support the renewal of this traditional forestry sector. As one of the major barriers for new innovations we identified the dominant role of established organisations securing their current positions, mainly driven by the forest industry timber procurement needs. From a managerial perspective, the changing institutional base of the current service organisations may facilitate new innovative business start-ups in addition to enhancing the strategic capabilities and competitiveness of the established firms in Finnish forestry sector.     

Thriving or Surviving? Forester Responses to Private Forestland Parcelization in New York State

Consulting forester business practices are challenged by significant decreases in the sizes of private forest properties and the changes in landowner values that accompany forestland parcelization. Though researchers have discussed the potential ways entrepreneurial foresters could adapt to these new ownership patterns and landscape dynamics, actual responses by foresters working in parcelizing landscapes are largely undocumented. We conducted twenty in-depth interviews with foresters working in New York State to determine (1) how foresters have experienced parcelization of properties they work with, (2) what challenges are associated with forestry projects on decreasing property sizes, and (3) what kinds of changes foresters are making to adapt to decreasing property sizes. We found that foresters across the state observe decreasing sizes of forest properties and see values of forest owners shifting beyond timber production, although most do not consider these changes to be the most urgent challenges to sustainable forestry and profitable forest consulting. Professional foresters are reacting to parcelization in diverse ways; while some are trying entrepreneurial approaches to reach new clients or offer different services, others are primarily interested in maintaining their traditional practices and roles. These findings indicate that strictly relying on independent entrepreneurial responses by private foresters may not be sufficient to close the gap between the historical role of consulting foresters and the trajectory of modern forest parcels. Additional measures like specialized training and policy changes may also be required to address the management challenges associated with forestland parcelization.     

Forest resources and timber production of Ghana: Current instruments for sustainable development

The decline of the natural tropical high forest has reached a critical stage in Ghana’s forestry history. Timber resources are over-exploited, degraded and further production prospects are questionable and of concern to forest management. The objective of this paper is to discuss some of the institutional measures and development instruments being taken in Ghana towards the feasibility of achieving sustainable management of the high forest for timber and other commodity products, as well as conserving other forest resources. This paper, therefore, provides institutional measures and structures, regulatory and economic instruments, currently being taken to ensure effective forest management and increase the productivity of the land and logging. The role of collaborative management approach of both natural reserved and unreserved high forests and to promote integrated farm forestry is explained. Effective management of the high forest resource demands close harmonizing of instruments and mechanisms, both internal and external to forestry, and which encourage stakeholders to participate actively in decision making that affects the resource quality and its production status. Currently, different instruments including regulatory, property rights, motivational, hypothecation, information supply and economic are being applied in Ghana to achieve sustainable forest resource management and timber production. These instruments are not mutually exclusive in their current application, but rather complementary. Thus, an effective mix of instruments is necessary to promote and make feasible, sustainable forestry in Ghana’s socioeconomic development objectives.     

退耕还林工程实施过程中的寻租行为分析

以我国退耕还林工程中的“毁林造林”现象为例,从经济学视角分析林业部门寻租行为成因,得出林农法律意识薄弱、林业部门收益不足、政府监管不完善等是产生寻租行为的主要动因,据此提出依托明确的林地产权界定提升农民对土地物权意识、加强对地方林业部门支持力度、完善生态补偿政策和司法监督机制等政策建议。     

Policies Affecting Forestry Entrepreneurship

Many demand and supply-side policies impede or foster forestry entrepreneurship. A study was conducted to consolidate existing knowledge on policies influencing forestry entrepreneurship in Finland, Norway, Japan, Australia, the Philippines and the USA, and to draw conclusions on these impeding and fostering factors. From the country studies it was difficult to find common structures on policies affecting forestry entrepreneurship. This is understandable because most policies in forestry are aimed at supporting sustainable forest management, wood production and ecological services of the forests rather than entrepreneurship as such. Despite the high variety of policies applied in the study countries, it can be concluded that strict public control on forests’ use and management potentially impedes forestry entrepreneurship. While these policies assist to correct market failure and to promote sustainability of forest management, they may also result into unnecessary and ineffective regulations that limit the opportunities for forestry entrepreneurship. A common feature promoting the demand for forestry entrepreneurship in some of the countries studied is the strong emphasis on forestry cooperatives, which were important institutions to support small-scale forestry entrepreneurship. In many study countries, different ad hoc programs are implemented to find new economic and entrepreneurial opportunities aside from the current use of wood and forests. Subsidies and tax incentives are commonly applied to reduce risks from making forestry investments or otherwise increase the economic return from timber production.     

南方集体林区林权制度改革研究

系统分析南方集体林区存在的产权问题,提出改革的主要内容:1)林权明晰化包括明确林地所有权主体,完善林地所有权的委托代理关系;构建经营权的委托代理关系,明确所有者与经营者之间的权利与义务;科学界定林地使用权和林木所有权主体.2)林权的安全性包括改革林地征用补偿制度;建立公益林征用(管制占用)补偿制度;改革商品林采伐限额制度;改革不合理的林业税费政策.3)林权的市场化运作包括降低交易成本;加强森林资源资产评估工作;提升林权交易需求的动力机制;激活林权交易市场的供给机制.     

Socio-economic and ecological outcomes of community based forest management: A case study from Tobé-Kpobidon forest in Benin,Western Africa

Community forestry, promoted as a “win–win” forest management strategy yielded a variety of results that includes both failure and relative success. The willingness of government to hold control over forest resources while transferring only part of property rights to local communities is one of the major constraints. Therefore, there is a need to explore alternative approaches, which enhance the position and accountability of local communities in community forest management. This study evaluated socio-economic and ecological outcomes of community forestry in a context of important property rights conceded to local communities. The study was conducted using focus groups discussions, forest income evaluation and assessment of forest resources and their dynamics. Findings showed that institutional design with important property rights conceded to local communities partially empowered local communities and reduced threats while improving the condition of forest resources. The approach also yielded positive economic outcomes that enabled bordering populations to make up to 25% of their global annual income from the forest. However, the sustainability of this scheme of forest management was mostly limited by the financial dependency on local non-governmental organization, by local institutions and discrepancy in forest benefits sharing among local forest users.     

Factors affecting participation of user group members: comparative studies on two types of community forestry in the Dry Zone, Myanmar

Drawing on the example of community forestry in Myanmar’s Dry Zone area, this paper conceptualizes and empirically assesses key factors for obtaining the participation of user group members, with emphasis on the implementation stage. More specifically, the study clarifies the commonalities and differences in influential factors between two types of community forestry: agroforestry and natural forest types. Field data were collected by semi-structured interviews with 54 households in four selected user groups, by key informant interviews, by informal interviews, and by direct observations. Our analysis was conducted in accordance with a framework in which selected social/institutional, economic, and physical factors affect participation. The results show that social/institutional factors are the most influential factors in both types, while economic factors are directly related to participation of user groups in the agroforestry type alone. Results indicated that preconditions, such as selection of leaders, should be considered in accordance with the local context in which the people have a shared recognition of what confers legitimacy to leadership. We recommend collaboration of the Forest Department with user group members in providing information regarding the use and selling of forest products from agroforestry-type community forest, as well as frequent communication with user groups to provide incentives regarding property rights stability for future benefits to continue participation of user group members in managing the dry forest.     

Swedish private forest owners’ perceptions and intentions with respect to adopting exotic tree species

Swedish forest growth can be increased through intensive forestry practices, enabling an increased use of forest biomass for climate-change mitigation. However, the diffusion of such practices depends on the forest owners’ adoption of them. We study Swedish private forest owners’ perceptions and intentions with respect to increasing forest growth by adopting exotic tree species. The results of a mail-in questionnaire survey show that although a majority of forest owners desire increasing forest growth, most owners have only a basic understanding of exotic tree species and a smaller proportion is interested in adopting them. The intention to adopt exotics seems to depend on the perceived performance of the species with respect to the economic aspects of forest management rather than on environmental or recreational concerns. Whereas a knowledge gap among the private forest owners regarding how to increase forest growth is implied, forest owners with higher self-rated knowledge of forestry and exotics have stronger intentions to adopt such species.     

南方集体林区森林资源产权变动管理对策研究

从森林资源产权完整性的角度考察认为,南方集体林区森林资源产权经历了四次较大的变动,指出当前南方集体林森林资源产权变动管理中主要存在产权不清、主体虚置、评估体系不健全、公益林补偿不到位、产权主体利益受损、监督机制不健全等问题。提出通过构建森林资源产权监管制度、规范森林资源产权变动、建立生态公益林权益补偿管理制度、改革商品林管理制度、建立森林资源产权信息系统等5项对策,以促进森林资源产权变动管理,保护森林资源产权主体合法权益。     

Willingness of Nonindustrial Private Forest Owners in Norway to Supply Logging Residues for Wood Energy

Norway has set ambitious targets for increasing bioenergy production. Forest residue extraction levels are currently very low, but residues have the potential to be an important component of the wood energy supply chain. A representative sample of Norwegian nonindustrial private forest owners having at least 8 ha (20 acres) of productive forest land was surveyed about their willingness to supply logging residues for wood energy production. About 59 % responded that they were willing to do so. Logistic regression analyses revealed that the following factors were positively associated with the likelihood of being willing to supply logging residues: total forest area, education level, living in a region with active timber markets and a history of forest production, and having positive perceptions of residue extraction and forestry’s role in mitigating climate change. Four variables were negatively associated with the likelihood to supply residues: living on property, being older than 65 years, having family or friends who are opposed to residue extraction, and having negative perceptions of residue extraction. The study provides insight regarding nonindustrial forest owners’ attitudes towards extraction of forest residues that may aid policy-makers designing effective means to meet national bioenergy production goals.     

Technical efficiency in timber production and effects of other income sources

In Norway, as in many other European countries, income from forestry has become marginal to owners’ household economies and most employment of forest-owner households is now undertaken off the property. Also, many forest owners have focused increasingly on other revenue-earning activities on their properties, such as providing recreational services. It is a challenge in all kinds of production to find the optimal way of converting inputs into outputs, i.e., to be technically efficient. Extent of financial dependency on income from forestry differs between part-time and full-time forest owners. Since the two groups have different livelihood strategies, it is plausible that full-time forest owners have more professional forest management practices. Data for a cross-section of 3,249 active (i.e., harvesting) forest owners were extracted from the 2004 Sample Survey of Agriculture and Forestry representing the year 2003. A stochastic production frontier analysis was applied to evaluate forest management efficiency impacts of important factors including property and owner characteristics, outfield-related and agricultural activities, off-property income and geographical location in central or remote areas. It was found that many forest owners are technically inefficient, and there exist opportunities for improved performance. Off-property income was found to have an estimated negative impact on technical efficiency, the inefficiency arising (weakly) with increasing share of household incomes from outfield activities, and properties in urban centred areas are less efficient than those in remote areas. One policy implication of the study is that a potentially substantial efficiency increase might be achieved from allowing small inefficient woodlots to merge into larger units of forestry production. Also, providing support for forest management plans may improve efficiency.     

Modeling Forest Owner Harvesting Behaviour and Future Intentions in Tasmania

Our ability to design public policies that effectively promote the efficient use of privately owned forest resources is underpinned by an understanding of the way in which forest production and investment decisions are made, and of how forest owners respond to changes in social, economic, and institutional conditions. A model of non-industrial private forest owners (NIPF) past harvesting behaviour and future harvesting intentions using a logit approach is presented. A Tobit model, which investigates harvesting intensity, is also developed. The responses to a survey of 386 NIPF owners in Tasmania are used to construct the data set consisting of socio-economic characteristics of NIPF owners, their forest ownership objectives, and property characteristics. The current study is innovative in that the role of NIPF owner objectives and attitudes is assessed in three econometric models exploring past harvesting behaviour, harvesting intensity, and future harvesting intentions. A series of observations can be made from comparing the results of the three models. For example, higher pulp prices are unlikely to affect NIPF owners harvesting intentions but are likely to increase harvesting intensity. The financial characteristics of the NIPF owner contribute most to predicting future harvesting intentions, with financial security being a disincentive to future harvesting. Landowner objectives and attitudes are important in explaining past harvesting activities and future intentions but do not significantly affect harvesting intensity. Furthermore, there are significant differences between different types of landowners in terms of the incentives that are likely to make them change their mind about participating in native forest harvesting.     

我国集体林产权制度改革回顾

林权制度是林业发展的基础,林权改革是林业改革的核心。我国集体林权制度在不同时期的改革实践中不断发展,并取得了一定成果。但由于目前林权权属的不明确及不断地林权改革导致的不稳定性以及相应的融资及实施体系不完善等问题,使得林权改革仍需不断努力。从法律、政策和制度上明确产权,建立或调整相应的配套法律、政策措施,建立并完善多种形式并存的集体林经营体制,及相应的支持体制。提高林区农民收入,处理好林业的经济效益与生态效益之间的关系,提高林业生产力,建立好林业产业体系等。     

Values placed on forest property benefits by Swedish NIPF owners: Differences between members in forest owner associations and non-members

A forest property represents benefits to the owner, the nature of which varies between resident and non-resident owners. Forest owners’ associations can be considered as an arrangement to increase the benefit from forest ownership by helping the forest owner to increase profitability. Thus, it can be assumed that associated forest owners value forest property benefits differently to non-associated owners. This study examines differences between members and non-members, and residents and non-residents, with respect to how they value the various forest property benefits. Responses from a landholder survey reveal differences concerning forestry income, maintaining contact with native locality, and keeping up a tradition in forestry. It is concluded that a challenge for the associations is to develop the organisation in accordance with the forest owners’ dissimilar property interests.     

浅谈面向林农的信息服务体系建设框架

集体林权制度改革的全面推行,把林地经营权和林木所有权落实到农户,确立了农民的经营主体地位,激发了广大林农的积极性。这些林农在林木经营的过程中需要各种的信息和服务,如林木的养护知识、林业政策、市场经济信息和咨询服务等,但林农群体主动获取信息的能力不强,获取信息的渠道也非常有限。如何为这些林农提供所需的服务,满足他们的信息需求成为林权改革过程中急需解决的一个重要问题。在讨论了林农信息需求的前提下,提出了一个专门针对林农的信息服务体系框架。     

美国家庭森林发展和保护经验与启示

在我国集体林权制度改革之后,集体林地实行均山到户政策,由林农单独管理,难以实现统一的可持续经营,由此造成森林质量较低、森林生态服务能力减弱等问题,为此借鉴他国经验具有重要意义。文中从3个方面整理总结美国家庭森林发展与保护方面的经验,首先梳理其由政府主导构建的家庭林业政策扶持体系,其次对非政府环保组织培育的新型林业经营主体——“森林银行”进行分析,最后介绍美国利用市场激励机制通过林业碳汇项目引导家庭林主加强林地管护的做法;据此提出促进我国集体林发展的建议:完善林地产权制度,保障林农合法权益;构筑全方位的政策扶持体系;发展环保非政府组织,培育新型林业经营主体;积极发展林业碳汇项目。     

Rethinking recent changes of forest regimes in Europe through property-rights theory and policy analysis

This article studies recent changes in forest regimes in Europe from an analytical perspective, combining both property-rights theory and policy analysis. Important elements of the institutional framework for forests can be identified through the application of theories from institutional economics (property and use rights) and public policy analysis. Different examples of important changes in the institutional framework in European countries illustrate which components were most likely to change in recent years: the order frame of property and use rights in Central and Eastern Europe, due to the breakdown of the socialist systems; the implicit use rights for the public due to growing needs in leisure activities and nature protection; and the implementation arrangement, where the state gradually withdraws from forest management activities. A first analysis of the triggers and dynamics of the changes shows that slow and incremental changes in public policies are much more likely to occur than any reform of the property rights or forest tenures. In order to explain the changing institutional framework, it is necessary to take into account not only the contingent external triggers, but also the logic of learning processes and the actor networks in place.