基于三维激光扫描的单木胸径和树高提取

为了提高林分尺度下单木参数的识别精度,研究了基于三维激光扫描的单木胸径和树高的辨识方法。在东北林业大学实验林场,采用Trimble S60三维激光扫描仪,对104株蒙古栎进行多测站扫描,获得样本树的点云数据。在对点云数据进行配准、去噪、地形数据提取、切片栅格化等一系列处理基础上,基于霍夫变换和连续生长法分别构建了胸径和树高的提取方法,对林分尺度下单木定位识别、胸径和树高提取精度进行了对比分析。研究结果表明:所构建方法单木定位识别精度均值为87.50%,胸径和树高提取的均方根误差分别为2.88 cm、2.61 m。     

联合资源三号与机载LiDAR的林分平均树高估测

提出一种将资源三号(ZY-3)立体影像的空间连续测量特性与LiDAR数据的高精度定位测高优势相结合的林分平均树高估测方法。首先从LiDAR离散点云提取地面点并内插生成分辨率为1m的林区DEM,同时根据点云强度提取与DEM同源且分辨率为1m的正射影像,分别作为ZY-3数据定向处理的高程控制基准和平面控制基准。通过ZY-3多类像对组合提取研究区DSM,其中三视DSM较二视DSM高程精度最佳。基于三视DSM,林区DEM,ZY-3多光谱数据提取的植被指数和野外实测树高数据,利用回归分析方法及高程误差修正方法分别建立了四个树高估测模型,实验表明,经高程误差修正后的改进树高估测模型精度最高,模型Adj R~2=0.913,其精度达到93.29%,是最佳树高估测模型。     

基于地面三维激光扫描技术的单木胸径树高提取精度研究

利用地面三维激光扫描仪提取单木参数,已经成为林业测量领域的研究热点,尤其在编制林业数表方面极具应用前景。基于地面三维激光扫描仪采集19株柏木和17株马尾松样本数据,提取单木胸径和树高两个主要测树因子,并与实际数据进行对比分析,结果表明:胸径因子采用凸包算法提取精度更高,相对误差为1.18%;树高测量精度较高,平均相对误差为-1.66%;基于地面三维激光扫描技术提取单木胸径和树高,完全满足调查精度要求,可以广泛应用于森林资源调查,以及单木及林分不同尺度数表编制等方面。     

点云数据双向选择单木提取与地面数据匹配方法

【目的】基于双向选择判断原理,提出一种将激光雷达(LiDAR)点云数据提取到的单木信息与地面实测单木信息进行匹配的方法,以得到更为合理的信息匹配结果。【方法】采用机载LiDAR点云数据分割单木,提取单木位置、数量、树高和冠幅等信息,从LiDAR提取单木位置出发,依据树高和距离正向确定候选地面实测单木,再根据候选地面实测单木位置和距离信息逆向确认LiDAR提取单木是否为最合适的匹配对象木。【结果】以匹配精度、匹配后的单木树高和冠幅精度为判断指标,与邻域最高匹配法、最邻近匹配法和双因素匹配法相比,在匹配精度一致的情况下,双向选择判断法匹配的单木树高精度可从75.21%提升至91.01%,冠幅精度从60.50%提升至68.64%;在保证匹配信息精度一致的情况下,双向选择判断法可将匹配精度从传统方法的33.52%提升至61.11%。【结论】点云数据双向选择单木提取与地面数据匹配方法可快速、高效地将激光雷达点云数据提取到的单木信息与地面实测单木信息进行匹配,与传统方法相比,能够在高密度、多林层林分中发挥更高优势。     

机载激光雷达森林参数估算方法综述

综述了机载激光雷达(LiDAR)在森林树高、郁闭度、蓄积量等参数估算中的应用,并对森林参数的估算精度及其影响因素进行了总结和分析。重点总结了目前机载激光雷达在森林参数估算中采用的如基于几何特性的点云数据滤波方法、基于强度信息森林参数提取方法、全波形数据的处理方法及L iDAR与多光谱影像数据融合关键技术,阐述了其现状及各自应用范围和存在的问题。     

基于哑变量非线性联立方程组模型的林木参数遥感反演

以湖南省攸县黄丰桥林场Worldview-2影像和地面样地调查数据为基础,采用Mean shift算法对影像进行多尺度分割,提取杉木人工林林木冠幅信息,共提取有效林木冠幅227个,并对提取的冠幅边界信息进行平滑处理。分析调查数据中实测冠幅与影像提取冠幅之间的相关性,结合实测胸径、树高与冠幅的关系,应用曲线估计、非线性联立方程组以及基于哑变量的非线性联立方程组分别建立树高和胸径的最优估算模型,并进行了精度评价。结果表明:将树高与胸径作为哑变量,并进行数量化分级建立的影像冠幅与胸径、树高的非线性误差变量联立方程组模型的拟合效果要优于其他2种方法,树高和胸径模型决定系数R2H和R2D分别为0.899和0.913。模型的适用性检验表明,模型的变动系数、平均百分标准误差均在10%以内,具有较强的稳健性。     

基于Landsat长时间序列的森林扰动参数提取与树高估算

【目的】研究基于遥感影像的森林扰动信息定量提取及其对树高估算的影响,为遥感反演森林参数(树高、生物量)提供参考和借鉴。【方法】选取黑龙江省凉水国家级自然保护区为研究区,以1984—2006年33期Landsat TM/ETM+多光谱遥感影像为数据源,对其进行缨帽变换提取缨帽角(TCA)和缨帽距离(TCD)2个扰动监测指数,采用时间轨迹分析方法(LandTrendr)对TCA与TCD指数进行时间序列重构,分别提取扰动发生的前一年(DBYEA)、扰动发生前的光谱值(DBVAL)、扰动持续时间(DDUR)、扰动量级(DMAG)、扰动后开始修复的时间(RBYEAR)、扰动后开始修复的光谱值(RBVAL)、修复量级(RMAG)和修复持续时间(RDUR)8个时间序列扰动参数。基于单时相Landsat影像光谱信息与单时相Landsat影像光谱信息+森林扰动参数2组变量分别采用随机森林(RF)算法估算树高。【结果】采用单时相Landsat影像光谱信息结合基于TCA和TCD提取的16个时间序列扰动参数建立的树高反演模型预估精度比采用单时相Landsat影像光谱信息建立的树高反演模型预估精度提高6.34%,均方根误差(RMSE)降低0.50 m。树高反演模型中基于TCA提取的时间序列扰动参数变量重要性高于基于TCD提取的时间序列扰动参数变量重要性。【结论】基于LandTrendr提取的森林时间序列扰动参数能够增强反射率与树高之间的相关性,提高遥感树高模型的反演精度,基于TCA提取的森林时间序列扰动参数对树高的解释能力高于基于TCD提取的森林时间序列扰动参数。     

基于机载LiDAR的单木结构参数及林分有效冠的提取

【目的】基于机载激光雷达(LiDAR)数据提取单木树冠三维结构参数(树冠顶点位置、树高、冠幅和冠长),并在此基础上对林分有效冠进行提取,为进一步研究林分尺度上的有效冠结构及其动态提供依据,以更好掌握并改进林业经营措施。【方法】采用一定规则下的局部最大值窗口搜索树冠顶点,进行单木树冠顶点探测和单木树高提取;以树冠顶点为标记,利用标记控制分水岭分割算法提取单木冠幅;采用垂直方向点云高程检测方法获取枝下高位置,提取冠长;在标记控制分水岭分割出的树冠边界,提取树冠接触高,取平均值作为该样地的林分有效冠高。【结果】树冠分割正确率为88.5%;结合样地实测参数对提取值进行相关性分析,树高R~2=0.886 2,冠幅R~2=0.786 4,冠长R~2=0.800 0,树高、冠幅和冠长精度分别为90.34%、86.80%和89.90%;同一林分内单木接触高相对比较稳定,对提取的林分有效冠高进行单因素方差分析,无显著差异。【结论】基于机载LiDAR数据,采用可变大小的动态窗口搜索局部最大值点,能提高单木结构参数的提取精度;利用树冠顶点标记控制分水岭算法,将高空间分辨率航片作为辅助数据,可完成较高精度的单木冠幅提取;垂直方向点云高程检测方法可提取单木冠长;LiDAR点云数据可对林分有效冠进行提取,在同一林分中,不同样本数量对接触高提取的变异性影响不大,有效冠高大致相同。机载LiDAR数据具有良好的单木树冠三维结构参数提取能力,能够满足现代林业调查对单木结构参数提取的需要,实现对林分有效冠的提取。     

基于机载激光雷达点云数据的马尾松单木材积估测

为提高森林单木材积估测精度和效率,选取贵州省织金县城郊典型马尾松林为研究对象,基于机载激光雷达点云和样地调查数据,以提取的树高、冠幅、树冠投影面积和树冠体积等单木结构参数为变量,构建基于机载激光雷达点云数据的马尾松单木材积估测模型。结果表明：1)基于点云数据提取的马尾松单木树高和冠幅因子与实际调查数据之间存在良好的相关性,决定系数R²在0.7以上,精度相对较高,可用于构建马尾松单木材积模型。2)在经典非线性CAR模型基础上,利用枚举法对树高、冠幅、树冠投影面积、树冠体积等4个变量组合构建的11个模型中,包含树高、冠幅及树冠体积三个林分因子的模型表现最佳,R²为0.774 1。3)树高、冠幅及树冠体积被确定为马尾松单木材积估测的关键因子,其中,树高的贡献最大且与单木材积呈极显著正相关关系(P<0.001)。利用机载激光雷达点云数据提取单木结构参数,并基于非线性CAR模型构建单木材积模型估测马尾松单木材积的方法是可行的,该方法不仅能满足森林资源调查的精度要求,且能有效提高调查效率。     

森林地上生物量的多基线InSAR层析估测方法

【目的】发展一种森林地上生物量(AGB)的多基线干涉合成孔径雷达(InSAR)层析估测方法,解决热带雨林森林AGB遥感估测常规方法的信号"饱和"问题,为区域及全球森林生物量估测和碳储量研究提供关键技术支撑。【方法】以法属圭亚那巴拉库(Paracou)热带雨林为研究对象,以Tropi SAR 2009 P-波段多基线机载SAR数据和85块样地调查数据为主要数据源。首先,根据HH极化层析相对反射率的三维分布信息提取林下地表高度,对HV极化多基线InSAR数据进行地形相位去除;然后,对HV极化多基线InSAR数据进行三维成像,并对其进行地理编码,得到地理坐标空间层析相对反射率的三维分布信息;最后,利用样地调查数据,分析不同高度处层析相对反射率与森林AGB的相关性,进而建立以层析相对反射率为输入特征的森林AGB估测模型,同时采用留一交叉验证法(LOOCV)对其估测模型进行精度评价。【结果】20 m以下各高度处层析相对反射率与森林AGB呈不同程度的负相关关系,以5 m高度处层析相对反射率与森林AGB的负相关性最强(相关系数达到-0.58);20 m以上各高度处层析相对反射率与森林AGB呈不同程度的正相关关系,以25 m高度处层析相对反射率与森林AGB的正相关性最强(相关系数达到0.63)。采用5 m高度处层析相对反射率构建模型的估测精度为88.44%,均方根误差为49.85 t·hm-2(相对均方根误差为13.56%);采用25 m高度处层析相对反射率构建模型的估测精度为88.82%,均方根误差为47.30 t·hm-2(相对均方根误差为12.87%);同时采用5 m和25 m高度处层析相对反射率联合构建模型的估测结果最优,估测精度为89.17%,均方根误差为46.45 t·hm-2(相对均方根误差为12.63%)。【结论】通过多基线InSAR层析技术得到的层析相对反射率信息有效解决了热带雨林森林AGB遥感估测常规方法的信号"饱和"问题。采用5 m和25 m高度处层析相对反射率可反演得到高精度的森林AGB,表明多基线InSAR层析技术得到的特定高度处层析相对反射率对热带雨林森林AGB具有良好的指示作用;同时利用5 m和25 m高度处层析相对反射率进行联合估测可进一步提高森林AGB的估测精度,说明充分利用不同层次的森林垂直结构信息可进一步提高复杂森林空间结构条件下的森林AGB估测精度。     

A comparison of lidar,radar, and field measurements of canopy height in pine and hardwood forests of southeastern North America

Forest canopy height is essential information for many forest management activities and is a critical parameter in models of ecosystem processes. Several methods are available to measure canopy height from single-tree to regional and global scales, but the methods vary widely in their sensitivities, leading to different height estimates even for identical stands. We compare four technologies for estimating canopy height in pine and hardwood forests of the Piedmont region of North Carolina, USA: (1) digital elevation data from the global Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) C-band radar interferometry, (2) X- and P-band radar interferometry from the recently developed airborne Geographic Synthetic Aperture Radar (GeoSAR) sensor, (3) small footprint lidar measurements (in pine only), and (4) field measurements acquired by in situ forest mensuration. Differences between measurements were smaller in pine than in hardwood forests, with biases ranging from 5.13 to 12.17 m in pine (1.60–13.77 m for lidar) compared to 6.60–15.28 m in hardwoods and RMSE from 8.40 to 14.21 m in pine (4.73–14.92 m for lidar) compared to 9.54–16.84 in hardwood. GeoSAR measurements of canopy height were among the most comparable measurements overall and showed potential for successful calibration, with R² = 0.87 in pine canopies and R² = 0.38 in hardwood canopies from simple linear regression. An improved calibration based on differential canopy penetration is presented and applied to SRTM measurements, resulting in canopy height estimates in pine forests with RMSE and standard error <4.00 m. Each of the remotely sensed methods studied produces reasonable and consistent depictions of canopy height that can be compared with data of similar provenance, but due to differences in underlying sensitivities between the methods, comparisons between measurements from various sources require cross-calibration and will be most useful at broad scales.     

Comparison between TanDEM-X- and ALS-based estimation of aboveground biomass and tree height in boreal forests

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) data from TerraSAR-X add-on for Digital Elevation Measurement (TanDEM-X) were used to estimate aboveground biomass (AGB) and tree height with linear regression models. These were compared to models based on airborne laser scanning (ALS) data at two Swedish boreal forest test sites, Krycklan (64°N19°E) and Remningstorp (58°N13°E). The predictions were validated using field data at the stand-level (0.5–26.1 ha) and at the plot-level (10 m radius). Additionally, the ALS metrics percentile 99 (p99) and vegetation ratio, commonly used to estimate AGB and tree height, were estimated in order to investigate the feasibility of replacing ALS data with TanDEM-X InSAR data. Both AGB and tree height could be estimated with about the same accuracy at the stand-level from both TanDEM-X- and ALS-based data. The AGB was estimated with 17.2% and 14.6% root mean square error (RMSE) and the tree height with 7.6% and 4.1% RMSE from TanDEM-X data at the stand-level at the two test sites Krycklan and Remningstorp. The Pearson correlation coefficients between the TanDEM-X height and the ALS height p99 were r?=?.98 and r?=?.95 at the two test sites. The TanDEM-X height contains information related to both tree height and forest density, which was validated from several estimation models.     

Developing an airborne laser scanning dominant height model from a countrywide scanning survey and national forest inventory data

Abstract

An airborne laser scanning (ALS) dominant height model was developed based on data from a national scanning survey with the aim of developing a digital terrain model (DTM) for Denmark. Data obtained in the ongoing Danish national forest inventory (NFI) were used as reference data. The data comprised a total of 2072 measurements of dominant height on NFI sample plots inventoried in 2006–2007 and their corresponding ALS data. The dominant height model included four variables derived from the ALS point cloud distribution. The variables were related to canopy height, canopy density and species composition on individual plots. The RMSE of the final model was 2.25 m and the model explained 93.9% of the variation (R ²). The model was successful in predicting dominant height across a wide range of forest tree species, stand heights, stand densities, canopy cover and growing conditions. The study demonstrated how low-density ALS data obtained in a survey not specifically aimed at forest applications may be used for obtaining biophysical forest properties such as dominant height, thereby reducing the overall forest inventory costs.     

Aboveground biomass estimation of small diameter woody species of tropical dry forest

Estimation of accurate biomass of different forest components is important to estimate their contribution to total carbon stock. There is lack of allometric equations for biomass estimation of woody species at sapling stage in tropical dry forest (TDF), and therefore, the carbon stored in this forest component is ignored. We harvested 46 woody species at sapling stage in a TDF and developed regression models for the biomass estimation of foliage, branch, bole and the total aboveground part. For foliage and branch biomass, the models with only stem diameter as estimator showed greater R ². For bole and aboveground biomass, the models including wood specific gravity or wood density exhibited higher R ² than those without wood density. Also, the model consisting of wood density, stem diameter and height had the lowest standard error of estimate for bole and aboveground biomass. Moreover, the R ² values are very similar among models for each component. The measurement error of height and the use of a standard value of wood density together may introduce more than 2 % error into the models. Therefore, we suggest using diameter-only model, which may be more practical and equally accurate when applied to stands outside our study area.     

Estimating plot-level forest structural attributes using high spectral resolution ASTER satellite data in even-aged Eucalyptus plantations in southern KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

This study assessed the suitability of both visible and shortwave infrared of ASTER reflectance bands and various vegetation indices for estimating forest structural attributes of Eucalyptus species. The study was conducted in even-aged monoculture plantations of E. grandis and E. nitens in the southern KwaZulu-Natal Midlands of South Africa. Empirical relationships between forest structural attributes, i.e. stems per hectare (SPHA), diameter at breast height (DBH), mean tree height (MTH), basal area and volume, and ASTER data were derived using correlation and canonical correlation analysis (CCA). The results indicated weak relationships between the studied forest structural attributes and ASTER data. In the younger plantation stands (4–6 years) the adjusted R ² values from CCA regression for SPHA, DBH, MTH, basal area and volume were 54.2, 63.5, 33.8, 25.4 and 30.3, respectively. The adjusted R ² values in the mature stands (7–9 years) were distinctly weaker with values of 50.7, 55.8, 25.1, 20.2 and 27.3 for SPHA, DBH, MTH, basal area and volume, respectively. The results imply that ASTER satellite data are not applicable to forest structural attribute estimation in commercially managed forest stands.     

小陇山2种典型天然林空间结构参数分布特征

采用林分空间结构参数一元分布、二元分布、林分综合指数和距离分析方法,探讨小陇山林区2种典型天然林空间结构特征。结果显示:(1)油松天然林混交度为0.397,树种隔离程度较低,锐齿栎天然林混交度为0.797,混交良好,油松、锐齿栎天然林胸径大小比数分别为0.507、0.485,林分均处于中庸状态,角尺度分别为0.511、0.508,林木分布格局均属随机分布。(2)油松、锐齿栎天然林中相同混交程度或优劣程度的林木大多处于随机分布,相同混交程度或分布格局的林木处于不同优劣程度的林木大致相等。区别在于油松天然林中同一优劣程度或分布格局的林木大多与同种相邻,而锐齿栎天然林中同一优劣程度或分布格局林木大多处于强度和极强度混交。(3)油松、锐齿栎天然林林分空间结构指数(FSSI)分别为0.526、0.739,林分空间结构距离(FSSD)分别为0.788、0.576,锐齿栎林空间结构明显优于油松林。FSSI和FSSD具有极显著的线性关系,FSSD=-1.481 5×FSSI+1.625 7,R²=0.990 6(P < 0.01),二者在表述林分空间结构方面具有较强的一致性。研究表明:二元分布、林分空间结构指数和距离分别是从林木水平和样地水平研究林分空间结构较为有效的方法,可为小陇山林区林分微观结构分析和精细的结构调整提供新途径。     

Practical large-scale forest stand inventory using a small-footprint airborne scanning laser

Mean tree height, dominant height, mean diameter, stem number, basal area and timber volume of 116 georeferenced field sample plots were estimated from various canopy height and canopy density metrics derived by means of a small-footprint laser scanner over young and mature forest stands using regression analysis. The sample plots were distributed systematically throughout a 6500 ha study area, and the size of each plot was 232.9 m². Regressions for coniferous forest explained 60–97% of the variability in ground reference values of the six studied characteristics. A proposed practical two-phase procedure for prediction of corresponding characteristics of entire forest stands was tested. Fifty-seven test plots within the study area with a size of approximately 3740 m² each were divided into 232.9 m² regular grid cells. The six examined characteristics were predicted for each grid cell from the corresponding laser data using the estimated regression equations. Average values for each test plot were computed and compared with ground-based estimates measured over the entire plot. The bias and standard deviations of the differences between predicted and ground reference values (in parentheses) of mean height, dominant height, mean diameter, stem number, basal area and volume were ?0.58 to ?0.85 m (0.64–1.01 m), ?0.60 to ?0.99 m (0.67–0.84 m), 0.15–0.74 cm (1.33–2.42 cm), 34–108 ha^?1 (97–466 ha^?1), 0.43–2.51 m² ha^?1 (1.83–3.94 m² ha^?1) and 5.9–16.1 m³ ha^?1 (15.1–35.1 m³ ha^?1), respectively.     

Estimation of shrub biomass by airborne LiDAR data in small forest stands

The presence of shrub vegetation is very significant in Mediterranean ecosystems. However, the difficulty involved in shrub management and the lack of information about behavior of this vegetation means that these areas are often left out of spatial planning projects. Airborne LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) has been used successfully in forestry to estimate dendrometric and dasometric variables that allow to characterize forest structure. In contrast, little research has focused on shrub vegetation. The objective of this study was to estimate dry biomass of shrub vegetation in 83 stands of radius 0.5 m using variables derived from LiDAR data. Dominant species was Quercus coccifera, one of the most characteristic species of the Mediterranean forests. Density of LiDAR data in the analyzed stands varied from 2 points/m² to 16 points/m², being the average 8 points/m² and the standard deviation 4.5 points/m². Under these conditions, predictions of biomass were performed calculating the mean height, the maximum height and the percentile values 80th, 90th, and 95th derived from LiDAR in concentric areas whose radius varied from 0.50 m to 3.5 m from the center of the stand. The maximum R² and the minimum RMSE for dry biomass estimations were obtained when the percentile 95th of LiDAR data was calculated in an area of radius 1.5 m, being 0.48 and 1.45 kg, respectively. For this radius, it was found that for the stands (n = 39) where the DTM is calculated with high accuracy (RMSE lower than 0.20 m) and with a high density of LiDAR data (more than 8 points/m²) the R² value was 0.73. These results show the possibility of estimating shrub biomass in small areas when the density of LiDAR data is high and errors associated to the DTM are low. These results would allow us to improve the knowledge about shrub behavior avoiding the cost of field measurements and clear cutting actions.     

Carbon storage in evergreen broad-leaf forests in mid-subtropical region of China at four succession stages

To better understand the effect of forest succession on carbon sequestration, we investigated carbon stock and allocation of evergreen broadleaf forest, a major zonal forest in subtropical China. We so...     

Estimating aboveground biomass in forest and oil palm plantation in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo using ALOS PALSAR data

Conversion of tropical forests to oil palm plantations in Malaysia and Indonesia has resulted in large-scale environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity and significant carbon emissions. For both countries to participate in the United Nation’s REDD (Reduced Emission from Deforestation and Degradation) mechanism, assessment of forest carbon stocks, including the estimated loss in carbon from conversion to plantation, is needed. In this study, we use a combination of field and remote sensing data to quantify both the magnitude and the geographical distribution of carbon stock in forests and timber plantations, in Sabah, Malaysia, which has been the site of significant expansion of oil palm cultivation over the last two decades. Forest structure data from 129 ha of research and inventory plots were used at different spatial scales to discriminate forest biomass across degradation levels. Field data was integrated with ALOS PALSAR (Advanced Land-Observing Satellite Phased Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar) imagery to both discriminate oil palm plantation from forest stands, with an accuracy of 97.0% (κ = 0.64) and predict AGB using regression analysis of HV-polarized PALSAR data (R² = 0.63, p < .001). Direct estimation of AGB from simple regression models was sensitive to both environmental conditions and forest structure. Precipitation effect on the backscatter data changed the HV prediction of AGB significantly (R² = 0.21, p < .001), and scattering from large leaves of mature palm trees significantly impeded the use of a single HV-based model for predicting AGB in palm oil plantations. Multi-temporal SAR data and algorithms based on forest types are suggested to improve the ability of a sensor similar to ALOS PALSAR for accurately mapping and monitoring forest biomass, now that the ALOS PALSAR sensor is no longer operational.