Ethics: The new challenge for animal agriculture

This paper introduces this volume dedicated to ethics in animal agriculture, in which moral responsibility of the actors of the animal production chain and relations between science, production and the society are analysed. Ethical concepts and their evolution through the ages, and ethical issues arising across different modes of production are presented. The diversity of viewpoints and interests of the stakeholders (farmers, technicians, scientists, consumers and citizens), relative to their values, cultures, and production conditions, is emphasized. The processes by which norms can be built while taking into account this diversity and societal objectives are illustrated at the levels of the profession, the country, Europe or the world. Ethics in animal production is a condition of the acceptability of the products, but also of the animal production sector as a whole.     

Board-invited review: the ethical and behavioral bases for farm animal welfare legislation

Concerns about farm animal welfare vary among individuals and societies. As people increasingly consider the values underlying current farm animal production methods, farm animal welfare policy debates have escalated. Recent food animal protection policies enacted in the European Union have fueled highly contentious discussions about the need for similar legislative activity in the United States. Policymakers and scientists in the United States are apprehensive about the scientific assessment, validation, and monitoring of animal welfare, as well as the unforeseen consequences of moving too hastily toward legislating farm animal welfare. The potential impact of such legislation on producers, food prices, animals, and concerned citizens must also be considered. Balancing the interests of all stakeholders has therefore presented a considerable challenge that has stymied US policymaking. In this review, we examine the roles of ethics and science in policy decisions, discuss how scientific knowledge relative to animal behavior has been incorporated into animal welfare policy, and identify opportunities for additional refinement of animal welfare science that may facilitate ethical and policy decisions about animal care.     

中国畜禽遗传资源的研究进展

作为生物多样性重要组成部分的家畜遗传资源库对当今和将来人类的食品和农业生产具有主要的经济、科学及文化价值.本文论述了动物遗传资源的现状、系统分类、评价方法,动物遗传资源的保存和利用研究进展.     

The case for mandatory inclusion of ethics within the zoological sciences curriculum

Traditionally, undergraduate science curricula include little or no “ethics,” either as theory or practice. However, zoologists are currently enjoying considerable media exposure: some of it positive (as in conservation practice), but more often negative (pertaining to issues such as the use of animals for testing of drugs, and genetic engineering). More than ever before, zoologists are being asked to make value judgments, and many of these involve moral assessment; if we accept that zoologists (along with other scientists) are professionals, then we must accept that they are responsible for any decisions they make, and it then follows that they are accountable, which can have serious ramifications in cases of malpractice. Ethics involves the application of morality in a professional setting. In light of this, teaching ethics is mandatory in degree programs such as engineering and medicine. This paper contends that a key output of zoological education is the undergraduate who is cognizant of the ethical framework and constructs within which he/she must function. The paper concludes with comment on the nature and style of delivery of ethics education.     

Part I: twenty-year literature overview of veterinary and allopathic medicine

Over the last 20 years, numerous reports, symposia, and workshops have focused on the challenges and changes facing veterinary and allopathic medicine. Many of these have specifically considered the changing economic and demographic profiles of the health professions, the specific roles of health professionals in society, and the importance of professional curricula in meeting changing professional and societal needs. Changing curricula to address future demands is a common thread that runs through all of these reports. Future demands most consistently noted include the fact that modern veterinary curricula must emphasize the acquisition of skills, values, and attitudes in addition to the acquisition of knowledge. Skills relating to business management, strong interpersonal communication, and problem solving have often been noted as lacking in current curricula. Furthermore, future curricula must allow for greater diversification and "specialization" among veterinary students; should promote greater opportunities for an emphasis on public health and population medicine, including food safety, food security, and bio- and agro-terrorism; and should motivate students to be active learners who possess strong lifelong learning skills and attitudes.     

论社会实践与社会和谐

“和谐”是社会实践最基本的“人和”环境的客观需要；也是形成“和谐文化”并指导人的生活方式、行为方式的根本前提；同时也是构建“和谐社会”促进社会发展的基本动力。一个社会的和谐在本质上体现为一种和谐的文化精神，社会主义现代化建设的伟大实践需要以“和谐文化”为基础构建和谐社会。“以人为本”是科学发展观的核心，是人的全面发展的内在本质要求。     

Postmodernism for animal scientists

Many scientists regard the term "postmodernism" as controversial. Because postmodern theorists question whether science can be objective, some scientists view postmodernism as anti-scientific. In this paper, we argue that traditional accounts of science developed during the modern era (16th, 17th, and 18th centuries) are still influential in animal science, but are no longer plausible. In particular, the view that science automatically leads to human betterment seems to be disingenuous. A postmodern view that portrays science as a political activity seems more plausible, and offers a means to better understand contentious policy issues that involve science. Although most animal scientists accept the view that theory selection, experimental designs, and technology development require value-laden judgments, most fail to recognize that such values may be politically motivated and embrace prevailing political structures. Postmodernists such as Michel Foucault argue that through the generation of knowledge, scientific disciplines create a discourse that serves to maintain a particular social structure that has political implications. Viewed in this way, it becomes clear how various interest groups can be critical of certain scientific programs. For example, groups that oppose research dealing with cloning, genetically modified organisms, and intensive livestock production may not be as much opposed to science as they are to the political interests served by this science. In other words, such groups view these research agendas as promoting policies that place them at risk. Such a postmodern account of science, may help animal scientists better understand the nature of contentious issues, and provide a basis for reforming the animal science discipline in ways that make it more responsive to the diverse interests of a pluralistic society.     

From a philosopher's perspective, how should animal scientists meet the challenge of contentious issues?

This article reviews how professional ethics can be useful in helping animal scientists meet new responsibilities. The transition to a postindustrial period in animal production signals a shift in the nature of contentious issues that animal producers face. Whereas farm income was once the most controversial issue in animal production, producers and animal scientists now face complex risk issues that have overlapping constituencies. Animal scientists need to develop a professional ethic that will stress open and active debate on these issues. Discussion of these issues must take place in the animal science classroom. The new professional ethic should be based on core values required for scientific research. However, departments and professional societies must develop institutions that will permit the values and methods of rationality and truth seeking to be applied in areas where measurement and experimental method are unlikely to resolve disputes, (i.e., to controversial issues that require public discussion and debate). Several specific proposals for such institution building are discussed.     

Pasture research in South Africa

The “systems approach” means that decision‐rich parts of any given system are considered quantitatively and in their proper context. This is done by using models of various kinds. A model can be built if an adequate information base exists for the system in question, and if decisions have been taken about the scope and focal point(s) of the model, its application, and its form. The systems approach is illustrated by outlining a general procedure for livestock enterprise planning. Some of the research and extension problems revealed, and new problems created, by this and other models, are mentioned.

Two matters of general concern are discussed. It is argued that the quality of leadership in agricultural research leaves something to be desired. Secondly, the class of agricultural scientists seems to be regrettably indifferent to the long‐term effects of its work, and blind to the needs of primitive food producers. The systems approach can contribute to improvement in both areas, as a result of forcing people to define clear objectives and order their priorities. There is a need for grassland and other research workers to state the objectives of their disciplines for the next 30 years.     

增强我国文化软实力的战略意义和基本路径

文化是软实力的重要表现形式，文化软实力是一个国家软实力的核心。增强我国文化软实力，对于增强我国文化的凝聚力、竞争力、创造力、影响力、持续力，提升我国的综合国力和国际竞争力，改变我国文化软实力发展滞后和“疲软”状况，推动我国文化的大发展、大繁荣具有重要的战略意义。要切实增强我国文化软实力，就必须探索适合我国实际的现实路径。     

初中英语教学跨文化意识的培养

语言是文化的载体，又是文化的重要组成部分，它有自己丰富的文化内涵。文化靠语言存储与传播，语言与文化密不可分。跨文化意识是综合语言运用能力的一个重要组成部分，中学英语教学中不可忽视。文章阐述了语言与文化的关系，跨文化交际在英语教学中的意义以及培养学生跨文化交际的方法和提高学生跨文化意识的能力。     

Food quality and "health nutrition"--a challenge for agriculture and food processing

The importance of a well balanced diet for good health is generally accepted. The modern techniques of agricultural production and food manufacturing, however, are widely debated. Although it is clear that no yield is possible without any expense, the use of farming aids is often overdone as is shown at the example of nitrogen fertilisers which can increase the nitrate content of some foods and of drinking water. This is partially also valid for some techniques and applications of food processing although their general use is not refused by the population. In these discussions, namely in connection with food additives, pesticides an environmental toxicants, a loss of the golden mean in the judgment is to be seen with biased arguments on both sides. The consequences are confusions in the population and improper political decisions by the authorities. In order to avoid the real and threatening dangers decisions should be ranked according to the significance of the potential risks. The importance of considering the bioavailability of nutrients and toxicants requires a collaboration of specialists in the fields of agricultural production, food manufacturing, food science and nutrition as is shown in some examples.     

Critical perspectives in animal agriculture: a response

People who work in the animal industries are faced with questions and criticisms about a variety of contentious issues, including animal management practices, ethics, diversity in animal agriculture, and animal welfare. Formulating responses to these questions requires a critical evaluation of our own work and open discussion of these controversial issues. Effective debate on these issues can be accomplished only with input from philosophers and social scientists skilled in such discussions, in addition to animal scientists. Therefore, animal scientists must engage in discussions of controversial issues among themselves and with entities outside agriculture. Furthermore, we must accept responsibility for the application of research results and any potential negative consequences. Because society is increasingly concerned with issues of animal welfare and the effects of new technologies, we should increase communications and transparency with the public. Increased diversity of race and gender will increase the ability of animal agriculture to connect with our stakeholders and to communicate the relevance of our work to society. Animal scientists need a professional ethic that espouses a higher level of understanding and commitment to philosophical discussions of contentious issues.     

牧民合作社本质特征及发展趋势

“人-草-畜”共生的草原畜牧业生产基础和经营方式与耕种农业不同。因此，以草原畜牧业为基础的牧民合作社受自然条件、文化背景和政策环境等因素影响。牧民合作社是在草原畜牧业生产和生活中以劳动力、资本、土地等生产要素整合方式进行互助互利，形成合伙放牧和繁重体力劳动的社会运动体;继《农民专业合作社法》颁布后，结合牧区经济的特点，牧区地方政府纷纷组织成立草地联户、牲畜饲养、生产资料购买、牧业机械联合、互助基金等生产、流通领域运作的经济体;在互助互利和自由、民主平等原则上组成具有紧密的经济组织体，在生产力发展和市场竞争条件下，形成一种具有合作社章程，理事会、监事会，生产管理、财务管理、劳动管理等一整套经营管理机制的组织性、统一性、持续性的经营体。其发展趋势是以嘎查(村)为单位的集体经济组织。自然环境复杂、人烟稀少、经济基础薄弱的牧区，发展合作社应该从生产合作社开始，从联户型互助组发展为小组型专业合作社和嘎查(村)型综合合作社，在此基础上逐步分离加工、销售、信用专业合作社，最后发展到牧工商一体化产业化联盟的合作社。     

剡溪山水文化旅游资源开发设想

文化底蕴越是丰厚的旅游资源，开发价值就越高。正是众多文人贤士游剡访古，使浙东剡溪的历史、文化与自然山水完美地结合在一起，形成了绚丽多彩的剡溪山水文化。文化被认为是旅游业的灵魂，是一种潜在的旅游产品。要提高山水旅游产品的文化品位，必须将山水文化的潜在价值转化为旅游产品。本文对剡溪山水文化旅游资源的开发提出了以下设想：再现“唐诗之路”山水旅游美景，并着重于按唐诗及有关文献、传说等增添新景点，沿江、沿山、于水中进行山水、文化全面开发，形成立体式、全景式的剡中山水文化游道；可开发出文化生态、修学、科考、宗教、节庆等剡溪山水文化旅游产品。     

Towards an integrated approach in supporting microbiological food safety decisions

Decisions on food safety involve consideration of a wide range of concerns including the public health impact of foodborne illness, the economic importance of the agricultural sector and the food industry, and the effectiveness and efficiency of interventions. To support such decisions, we propose an integrated scientific approach combining veterinary and medical epidemiology, risk assessment for the farm-to-fork food chain as well as agricultural and health economy. Scientific advice is relevant in all stages of the policy cycle: to assess the magnitude of the food safety problem, to define the priorities for action, to establish the causes for the problem, to choose between different control options, to define targets along the food chain and to measure success.     

Bioethics Symposium: The ethical food movement: What does it mean for the role of science and scientists in current debates about animal agriculture?

Contemporary animal agriculture is increasingly criticized on ethical grounds. Consequently, current policy and legislative discussions have become highly controversial as decision makers attempt to reconcile concerns about the impacts of animal production on animal welfare, the environment, and on the efficacy of antibiotics required to ensure human health with demands for abundant, affordable, safe food. Clearly, the broad implications for US animal agriculture of what appears to be a burgeoning movement relative to ethical food production must be understood by animal agriculture stakeholders. The potential effects of such developments on animal agricultural practices, corporate marketing strategies, and public perceptions of the ethics of animal production must also be clarified. To that end, it is essential to acknowledge that people's beliefs about which food production practices are appropriate are tied to diverse, latent value systems. Thus, relying solely on scientific information as a means to resolve current debates about animal agriculture is unlikely to be effective. The problem is compounded when scientific information is used inappropriately or strategically to advance a political agenda. Examples of the interface between science and ethics in regards to addressing currently contentious aspects of food animal production (animal welfare, antimicrobial use, and impacts of animal production practices on the environment) are reviewed. The roles of scientists and science in public debates about animal agricultural practices are also examined. It is suggested that scientists have a duty to contribute to the development of sound policy by providing clear and objectively presented information, by clarifying misinterpretations of science, and by recognizing the differences between presenting data vs. promoting their own value judgments in regard to how and which data should be used to establish policy. Finally, the role of the media in shaping public opinions on key issues pertaining to animal agriculture is also discussed.     

Population history and genetic variability in the Spanish Arab Horse assessed via pedigree analysis

The important role of values is very evident when it comes to citizens' concept of sustainability. The present paper had the objective to define sustainability as a socio-cultural concept for livestock production systems. The main research question was: how do Dutch citizens value various aspects of dairy production systems? We conducted farm visits with citizens panels in The Netherlands. We asked citizens about their on-farm perception (smelling, hearing, seeing and feeling) and what they perceived valuable to preserve for the future. We presented sustainability as a socio-cultural concept which included citizens' valuable aspects (SCA) and concerns (SCI). We defined a socio-cultural aspect (SCA) as an aspect of a livestock production system which is mentioned by society as being valuable to preserve for the future. We identified an SCA as a socio-cultural issue (SCI) when it evokes societal concern in present time or is expected to do so in the future. By qualitative analysis we identified SCAs and SCIs of dairy production systems and combined these into socio-cultural themes (SCT). We found ten socio-cultural themes which contained 42 socio-cultural aspects (SCA), of which 27 were identified as socio-cultural issues (SCI). We can conclude that that livestock production systems have more values for society than solely food production, because only one of the ten identified socio-cultural themes directly concerned food production (SCT 1), whereas the nine other themes concerned values that go beyond food production: farming activities (SCT 2), farm income (SCT 3), animals (SCT 4), landscape (SCT 5), nature (SCT 6), environment (SCT 7), farming culture (SCT 8), national culture (SCT 9) and services for society (SCT 10). One of the main values of agriculture seems the combination of apparently contradicting aspects such as technology and nature within one system. In conclusion, sustainability as a socio-cultural concept for livestock production systems is defined by a wide range of socio-cultural aspects and issues, reflecting citizens' values and concerns of that system and for a sustainable agriculture it is important that both SCIs and SCAs are taken into account.     

The "new perception" of animal agriculture: legless cows, featherless chickens, and a need for genuine analysis

A growing popular literature has created a "New Perception" of animal agriculture by depicting commercial animal production as 1) detrimental to animal welfare, 2) controlled by corporate interests, 3) motivated by profit rather than by traditional animal care values, 4) causing increased world hunger, 5) producing unhealthy food, and 6) harming the environment. Agricultural organizations have often responded with public relations material promoting a very positive image of animal agriculture and denying all six of the critics' claims. The public, faced with these two highly simplistic and contradictory images, needs knowledgeable research and analysis to serve as a basis for public policy and individual choice. Scientists and ethicists could provide such analysis. In some cases, however, scientists and ethicists have themselves produced misleading, polarized, or simplistic accounts of animal agriculture. The problems in such accounts include the repetition of unreliable information from advocacy sources, use of unwarranted generalizations, simplistic analysis of complex issues, and glossing over the ethical problems. The New Perception debate raises important and complex ethical issues; in order to provide useful guidance, both scientists and ethicists must consider these issues as research problems that are worthy of genuine investigation and analysis.     

A commentary on domestic animals as dual-purpose models that benefit agricultural and biomedical research

Research on domestic animals (cattle, swine, sheep, goats, poultry, horses, and aquatic species) at land grant institutions is integral to improving the global competitiveness of US animal agriculture and to resolving complex animal and human diseases. However, dwindling federal and state budgets, years of stagnant funding from USDA for the Competitive State Research, Education, and Extension Service National Research Initiative (CSREES-NRI) Competitive Grants Program, significant reductions in farm animal species and in numbers at land grant institutions, and declining enrollment for graduate studies in animal science are diminishing the resources necessary to conduct research on domestic species. Consequently, recruitment of scientists who use such models to conduct research relevant to animal agriculture and biomedicine at land grant institutions is in jeopardy. Concerned stakeholders have addressed this critical problem by conducting workshops, holding a series of meetings with USDA and National Institutes of Health (NIH) officials, and developing a white paper to propose solutions to obstacles impeding the use of domestic species as dual-purpose animal models for high-priority problems common to agriculture and biomedicine. In addition to shortfalls in research support and human resources, overwhelming use of mouse models in biomedicine, lack of advocacy from university administrators, long-standing cultural barriers between agriculture and human medicine, inadequate grantsmanship by animal scientists, and a scarcity of key reagents and resources are major roadblocks to progress. Solutions will require a large financial enhancement of USDA's Competitive Grants Program, educational programs geared toward explaining how research using agricultural animals benefits both animal agriculture and human health, and the development of a new mind-set in land grant institutions that fosters greater cooperation among basic and applied researchers. Recruitment of outstanding scientists dedicated to using domestic animal models for agricultural and biomedical research, strong incentives for scientists to take advantage of training opportunities to write NIH grants, and greater NIH and USDA cooperation to sponsor the use of agricultural animals as dual-purpose animal models that benefit agriculture and biomedicine will also be necessary. In conclusion, the broad diversity of animal models needed for agricultural and biomedical research is at risk unless research priorities at the land grant universities are critically evaluated and financial support for such research is dramatically increased.