Simulating soil deformation using a critical-state model: II. Soil compaction beneath tyres and tracks

A critical-state finite element model was used to simulate compaction under single and dual tyres and tracks. The compaction involved deformations at three different scales, from small tyres with a contact area of about 70 cm² (single tyre) supporting a load of about 50 kg, to large tyres of about 1.2 m² (dual tyres) supporting a load of about 4500 kg. The predictions were compared with measured values for several different quantities. These included: rut depths; vertical displacement and shear strain: vertical stresses; and, void ratios and precompression stress measured on sampled soil cores. In general, the predictions and measurements agreed reasonably well. However, the agreement between prediction and measurement depended on the precision of measurements, soil disturbance, and the volume of soil involved in a measurement relative to the volume of soil influenced by the tyre or track. This study shows that the critical-state finite element model is useful, offering insight into the compaction process, the dependence of compaction on soil strength and compressibility, and practical implications for soil management.     

Rules of thumb for minimizing subsoil compaction

Subsoil compaction is persistent and can affect important soil functions including soil productivity. The aim of this study was to develop recommendations on how to avoid subsoil compaction for soils exposed to traffic by machinery at field capacity. We measured the vertical stress in the tyre–soil contact area for two traction tyres at ca. 30‐ and 60‐kN wheel loads on a loamy sand at field capacity. Data on resulting stress distributions were combined with those from the literature for five implement tyres tested at a range of inflation pressures and wheel loads. The vertical stress in the soil profile was then predicted using the Söhne model for all tests in the combined data set. The predicted stress at 20 cm depth correlated with the maximum stress in the contact area, tyre inflation pressure, tyre–soil contact area and mean ground pressure. At 100 cm depth, the predicted vertical stress was primarily determined by wheel load, but an effect of the other factors was also detected. Based on published recommendations for allowable stresses in the soil profile, we propose the ‘50‐50 rule’: At water contents around field capacity, traffic on agricultural soil should not exert vertical stresses in excess of 50 kPa at depths >50 cm. Our combined data provide the basis for the ‘8‐8 rule’: The depth of the 50‐kPa stress isobar increases by 8 cm for each additional tonne increase in wheel load and by 8 cm for each doubling of the tyre inflation pressure. We suggest that farmers use this simple rule for evaluating the sustainability of any planned traffic over moist soil.     

小型拖拉机土壤压实的有限元预测

农业土壤的基本特征是松软和经常处于非饱和状态，土壤体积密度与含水率既是主要参数又是影响压实的重要因素，且在不断地变化。为了进行有效田间土壤压实管理，根据具体土壤特性，采用一个二维的模型，用有限元方法进行土壤压实预测。模型考虑了应力路径、初始土壤体积密度和含水率等，将土壤体积密度视为平均主应力和最大自然剪切应变的非线性函数，可预测小型拖拉机在非饱和土壤上通过时引起土壤体积密度的变化及应力分布情况等。在华北轻壤土的试验证明，模型具有良好的拟合效果。     

Technical solutions to reduce the risk of subsoil compaction: effects of dual wheels, tandem wheels and tyre inflation pressure on stress propagation in soil

The use of heavy machinery is increasing in agriculture, which induces increased risks of subsoil compaction. Hence, there is a need for technical solutions that reduce the compaction risk at high total machine loads. Three field experiments were performed in order to study the effects of dual wheels, tandem wheels and tyre inflation pressure on stress propagation in soil. Vertical soil stress was measured at three different depths by installing probes into the soil horizontally from a dug pit. In one experiment, also the stress distribution below the tyre was measured. Beneath the dual wheels, vertical stresses at 0.15 and 0.3 m depth were lower between the two wheels than under the centre of each wheel, despite the gap between the wheels being small (0.1 m). At 0.5 m depth, vertical stress beneath the wheels was the same as between the two wheels. The stress interaction from the two wheels was weak, even in the subsoil. Accordingly, measured stresses at 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 m depth were highest under the centre of each axle centre line of tandem wheels, and much lower between the axles. For a wheel load of 86 kN, tyre inflation pressure significantly affected stress at 0.3 m depth, but not at greater depths. Stress directly below the tyre, measured at 0.1 m depth, was unevenly distributed, both in driving direction and perpendicular to driving direction, and maximum stress was considerably higher than tyre inflation pressure. Calculations of vertical stress based on Boussinesq's equation for elastic materials agreed well with measurements. A parabolic or linear contact stress distribution (stress declines from the centre to the edge of the contact area) was a better approximation of the contact stress than a uniform stress distribution. The results demonstrate that stress in the soil at different depths is a function of the stress on the surface and the contact area, which in turn are functions of wheel load, wheel arrangement, tyre inflation pressure, contact stress distribution and soil conditions. Soil stress and soil compaction are a function of neither axle load nor total vehicle load. This is of great importance for practical purposes. Reducing wheel load, e.g. by using dual or tandem wheels, also allows tyre inflation pressure to be reduced. This reduces the risk of subsoil compaction.     

Soil stress as affected by wheel load and tyre inflation pressure

The relative importance of wheel load and tyre inflation pressure on topsoil and subsoil stresses has long been disputed in soil compaction research. The objectives of the experiment presented here were to (1) measure maximum soil stresses and stress distribution in the topsoil for different wheel loads at the same recommended tyre inflation pressure; (2) measure soil stresses at different inflation pressures for the given wheel loads; and (3) measure subsoil stresses and compare measured and simulated values. Measurements were made with the wheel loads 11, 15 and 33 kN at inflation pressures of 70, 100 and 150 kPa. Topsoil stresses were measured at 10 cm depth with five stress sensors installed in disturbed soil, perpendicular to driving direction. Contact area was measured on a hard surface. Subsoil stresses were measured at 30, 50 and 70 cm depth with sensors installed in undisturbed soil. The mean ground contact pressure could be approximated by the tyre inflation pressure (only) when the recommended inflation pressure was used. The maximum stress at 10 cm depth was considerably higher than the inflation pressure (39% on average) and also increased with increasing wheel load. While tyre inflation pressure had a large influence on soil stresses measured at 10 cm depth, it had very little influence in the subsoil (30 cm and deeper). In contrast, wheel load had a very large influence on subsoil stresses. Measured and simulated values agreed reasonably well in terms of relative differences between treatments, but the effect of inflation pressure on subsoil stresses was overestimated in the simulations. To reduce soil stresses exerted by tyres in agriculture, the results show the need to further study the distribution of stresses under tyres. For calculation of subsoil stresses, further validations of commonly used models for stress propagation are needed.     

FEM analysis of subsoil reaction on heavy wheel loads with emphasis on soil preconsolidation stress and cohesion

Heavy sugarbeet harvesters may compact subsoil. But it is very difficult to study this by field experiments that resemble agricultural practice. Therefore, an analysis was made by a finite element method (FEM) for a relevant calcaric fluvial soil profile, the mechanical properties of which were largely known. Measuring data of this Lobith loam soil includes preconsolidation stress, compression index and swelling index, all as a function of depth. Using these three types of soil parameters calculations have been done for tyre sizes, inflation pressures and wheel loads that occur with heaviest sugarbeet harvesters available on the European market in 1999. Because no values on soil cohesion were available, the calculations were done for several cohesion levels. The results include the detection of regions with Mohr–Coulomb plasticity and regions with cap plasticity (compaction hardening). For the soil studied—a typical soil strength profile for arable land with ploughpan in the Netherlands in the autumn of 1977—all studied combinations of wheel load and inflation pressure did not induce compaction in and below the ploughpan. The size of the region with Mohr–Coulomb plasticity decreased with increasing cohesion. It appeared from a sensitivity analysis that, although soil modelling may use a great number of soil parameters, the most important parameters seem to be: preconsolidation stress and cohesion. There is an urgent need for data of these parameters that are measured on a great range of subsoils and subsoil conditions.     

Subsoil compaction caused by machinery traffic on a Swedish Eutric Cambisol at different soil water contents

Field traffic may reduce the amount of air-filled pores and cavities in the soil thus affecting a large range of physical soil properties and processes, such as infiltration, soil water flow and water retention. Furthermore, soil compaction may increase the mechanical strength of the soil and thereby impede root growth.

The objective of this research was to test the hypotheses that: (1) the degree of soil displacement during field traffic depends largely on the soil water content, and (2) the depth to which the soil is displaced during field traffic can be predicted on the basis of the soil precompression stress and calculated soil stresses. In 1999, field measurements were carried out on a Swedish swelling/shrinking clay loam of stresses and vertical soil displacement during traffic with wheel loads of 2, 3, 5 and 7 Mg at soil water contents of between 11 and 35% (w/w). This was combined with determinations of soil precompression stress at the time of the traffic and predictions of the soil compaction with the soil compaction model SOCOMO. Vertical soil displacement increased with increased axle load. In May, the soil precompression stress was approximately 100 kPa at 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 m depth. In August and September, the soil precompression stress at 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 m depth was 550–1245 kPa. However, when traffic with a wheel load of 7 Mg was applied, the soil displacements at 0.5 m depth were several times larger in August and September than in May, and even more at 0.7 m depth. An implication of the results is that the precompression stress does not always provide a good indication of the risk for subsoil compaction. A practical consequence is that subsoil compaction in some soils may occur even when the soil is very dry. The SOCOMO model predicted the soil displacement relatively well when the soil precompression stress was low. However, for all other wheeling treatments, the model failed to predict that any soil compaction would occur, even at high axle loads.

The measured soil stresses were generally higher than the stresses calculated with the SOCOMO model. Neither the application of a parabolic surface load distribution nor an increased concentration factor could account for this difference. This was probably because the stress distribution in a very dry and strongly structured soil is different from the stress distribution in more homogeneous soils.     

A METHOD OF PREDICTING BULK DENSITY CHANGES IN FIELD SOILS RESULTING FROM COMPACTION BY AGRICULTURAL TRAFFIC

A simplified soil mechanical model was constructed to predict compaction beneath agricultural wheels when running on soils of certain characteristics. Soil strength functions were developed from in situ measurements of field soils and some laboratory measurements. Soil strain was measured by surface sinkage and changes of dry bulk density by gamma-ray transmission methods. Soil stresses were measured by deformable spherical transducers and compared to predicted stresses using equations developed by Söhne. A method of analysis was devised to identify a form of the virgin compression line from field data. Changes of the slope and intercept of this line were monitored over a range of moisture contents for two soils and used in the prediction model. The prediction model was tested against compaction measured during independent experiments at different sites. Good prediction was found for soils of initial dry bulk density greater than 1.1 g cm^?3 and cone resistance greater than 500 kPa, using a 30°, 12.9mm diameter cone. On looser and weaker soils the predicted compaction was often less than measured values. Using the model for simulation of compaction beneath a range of wheels revealed that contact pressure alone can be a misleading guide to compaction. Increases of bulk density below 10cm are considerably influenced by wheel load. The most effective way of reducing compaction requires the use of both a minimum load and a maximum contact area.     

Evaluating the performance of a soil compaction sensor

One of the most significant soil parameters affecting root growth is soil compaction. It is therefore important to be able to determine the presence of compacted layers, their depth, thickness and spatial location without the necessity of digging a large number of holes in the field with either a spade or backhoe. Previous investigations have identified soil compaction by different methods such as: using ground penetrating radar, acoustic systems, vertical and horizontal penetrometers and instrumented wings mounted on the faces of tines. Linking the output from these sensors to global positioning systems would give an indication of the spatial patent variation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of a soil compaction profile sensor in both controlled laboratory and field conditions. The sensor consisted of a series of instrumented flaps; a flap is defined as the sensing element which comprises one half of a pointed leading edge to the leg of a tine to which strain gauges are placed on the rear face of the flap. Studies measured the effect of compaction on the changes in the soil resistance acting upon a flap face in a soil bin laboratory and under field conditions. The results indicated that the sensor was sensitive to differences in soil strength at different depths in soils. A technique was developed to identify the soil compaction resulting from different tyre inflation pressures and loads. The soil compaction profile sensor was tested on a number of fields in south‐eastern England to determine the changes in soil strength below the wheelings of a pea harvester operating at different tyre inflation pressures.     

轮式和履带式车辆行走对农田土壤的压实作用分析

由履带式行走机构代替轮胎被认为是减缓大型农业车辆对土壤压实的有效手段之一。与轮胎相比,履带具有更大的接地面积,能够有效减小车辆对土壤的平均压力。然而履带与土壤接触面间的应力分布极不均匀,应力主要集中在各承重轮下方,履带减缓土壤压实的能力是目前有待研究的问题。该研究通过在土壤内埋设压力传感器,测试比较了相近载质量的轮胎和履带式车辆作用下,0.15和0.35 m深度土壤内的最大垂直及水平应力,同时研究了车辆行驶速度对土壤内垂直及水平应力大小的影响。基于土壤压实分析模型计算了轮胎和履带压实的0.1~0.7m深度土壤内的最大垂直及水平应力分布。通过对0.15和0.35 m深度的土样进行室内测试,比较了轮胎和履带式车辆压实对土壤透气率、先期固结压力及干容重大小的影响。结果表明,履带相比较于轮胎,能够减小土壤内的垂直及水平应力,但垂直应力的减小量比水平应力大;轮胎对0.15和0.35m深度土壤作用的平均最大垂直应力分别约为履带的2.2及2.0倍,而平均最大水平应力仅分别约为履带的1.2及1.1倍。轮胎作用下的最大垂直及水平应力在表层土壤内明显大于履带,但两者的应力差值随着土壤深度的增加逐渐减小,分别在0.7和0.4 m深度时无明显差别。轮胎和履带压实作用下,0.15和0.35 m深度土壤内的垂直及水平应力均随车辆行驶速度的增加而减小,履带作用下的应力减小速度大于轮胎。履带作用下0.15和0.35 m深度内土壤的透气率均明显小于轮胎,但土壤的先期固结压力及干容重无显著区别。研究结果为可为农业车辆行走机构的选择及使用提供参考。     

SoilFlex: A model for prediction of soil stresses and soil compaction due to agricultural field traffic including a synthesis of analytical approaches

Soil compaction is one of the most important factors responsible for soil physical degradation. Soil compaction models are important tools for controlling traffic-induced soil compaction in agriculture. A two-dimensional model for calculation of soil stresses and soil compaction due to agricultural field traffic is presented. It is written as a spreadsheet that is easy to use and therefore intended for use not only by experts in soil mechanics, but also by e.g. agricultural advisers. The model allows for a realistic prediction of the contact area and the stress distribution in the contact area from readily available tyre parameters. It is possible to simulate the passage of several machines, including e.g. tractors with dual wheels and trailers with tandem wheels. The model is based on analytical equations for stress propagation in soil. The load is applied incrementally, thus keeping the strains small for each increment. Several stress–strain relationships describing the compressive behaviour of agricultural soils are incorporated. Mechanical properties of soil can be estimated by means of pedo-transfer functions. The model includes two options for calculation of vertical displacement and rut depth, either from volumetric strains only or from both volumetric and shear strains. We show in examples that the model provides satisfactory predictions of stress propagation and changes in bulk density. However, computation results of soil deformation strongly depend on soil mechanical properties that are labour-intensive to measure and difficult to estimate and thus not readily available. Therefore, prediction of deformation might not be easily handled in practice. The model presented is called SoilFlex, because it is a soil compaction model that is flexible in terms of the model inputs, the constitutive equations describing the stress–strain relationships and the model outputs.     

A new approach for modelling vertical stress distribution at the soil/tyre interface to predict the compaction of cultivated soils by using the PLAXIS code

Soil compaction by agricultural machines can have adverse effects on crop production and the environment. Different models based on the Finite Element Method have been proposed to calculate soil compaction intensity as a function of vehicle and soil properties. One problem when modelling soil compaction due to traffic is the estimation of vertical stress distribution at the soil surface, as the vertical stress is inhomogeneous (non-uniform) and depends on soil and tyre properties. However, uniform stress distribution at the soil/tyre interface is used to predict the compaction of cultivated soils in most FEM compaction models. We propose a new approach to numerically model vertical stress distribution perpendicular to the driving direction at the soil/tyre interface, employing the FEM models of PLAXIS code. The approach consists of a beam (characterised by its geometric dimensions and flexural rigidity) introduced at the soil surface and loaded with a uniform stress with the aim to simulate the action of a wheel at the soil surface. Different shapes of stress distribution are then obtained numerically at the soil surface by varying the flexural rigidity of the beam and the mechanical parameters of the soil. PLAXIS simulations show that the soil type (soil texture) modifies the shape of the stress distribution at the edges of the contact interface: a parabolic form is obtained for sand, whereas a U-shaped is obtained for clay. The flexural rigidity of the beam changes the shape of distribution which varies from a homogenous (uniform) to an inhomogeneous distribution (parabolic or U-shaped distribution). These results agree with the measurements of stress distributions for different soils in the literature. We compared simulations of bulk density using PLAXIS to measurement data from compaction tests on a loamy soil. The results show that simulations are improved when using a U-shaped vertical stress distribution which replaces a homogenous one. Therefore, the use of a beam (cylinder) with various flexural rigidities at the soil surface can be used to generate the appropriate distribution of vertical stress for soil compaction modelling during traffic.     

Mathematical simulation and calculation of the soil compaction under dynamic loads

The deformation and compaction of loamy sandy soddy-podzolic soils under linear dynamic changes in the compressive stresses and in the course of the soil creeping were studied in field experiments. The rheological properties of these soils occurring in the viscoelastic state were described by a first-order differential equation relating the compressive stresses, the rates of their changes, and the velocities of the relative vertical compressive deformation. Regression equations were derived for the viscoelastic properties of the studied soil as functions of its density, moisture, and linear compaction velocity. Methods were proposed for the calculation of indices of the stress-strain state and the compaction of soils under specified conditions of changes in their compressive stresses with time and in the course of the soil creeping after the initial linear increase in load. Corresponding computer programs were developed. The effect of the main factors due to the linear increase in the compressive loads and in the course of the soil creeping on the rheological properties, the stress-strain state, and the density of soils was quantitatively estimated. The calculation showed that the values of the soil deformation and the density under compressive stresses lower than the ultimate strength were stabilized with time, and the properties of the viscoelastic soil approached elastic ones.     

Modern forestry vehicles and their impacts on soil physical properties

“Close-to-nature forest stands” are one central key in the project “Future oriented Forest Management” financially supported by the German Ministry for Science and Research (BMBF). The determination of ecological as well as economical consequences of mechanized harvesting procedures during the transformation from pure spruce stands to close-to-nature mixed forest stands is one part of the “Southern Black Forest research cooperation”. Mechanical operations of several typical forest harvesting vehicles were analysed to examine the actual soil stresses and displacements in soil profiles and to reveal the changes in soil physical properties of the forest soils. Soil compaction stresses were determined by Stress State Transducer (SST) and displacement transducer system (DTS) at two depths: 20 and 40 cm. Complete harvesting and trunk logging processes accomplished during brief 9-min operations were observed at time resolutions of 20 readings per second. Maximum vertical stresses for all experiments always exceeded 200 kPa and at soil depths of 20 cm for some vehicles and sequences of harvesting operations approached ≥500 kPa. To evaluate the impacts of soil stresses on soil structure, internal soil strengths were determined by measuring precompression stresses. Precompression stress values of forest soils at the field sites ranged from 20 to 50 kPa at soil depths of 20 cm depth and from 25 to 60 kPa at soil depths of 40 cm, at a pore water pressure of −60 hPa. Data obtained for these measured soil stresses and their natural bearing capacities proved that sustainable wheeling is impossible, irrespective of the vehicle type and the working process. Re-occurring top and subsoil compaction, increases in precompression stress values in the various soil horizons, deep rut depths, vertical and horizontal soil displacements associated with shearing stresses, all affected the mechanical strengths of forest soils. In order to sustain naturally “unwheeled” soil areas with minimal compaction, it is recommended that smaller machines, having less mass, be used to complete forest harvesting in order to prevent or at least to maintain currently minimal-compacted forest soils. Additionally, if larger machines are required, permanent wheel and skid tracks must be established with the goal of their maximum usefulness for future forest operations. A first step towards accomplishing these permanent pathways requires comprehensive planning with the Federal State Baden-Württemberg. The new guideline for final opening with skid tracks (Landesforstverwaltung Baden-Württemberg, 2003) proposes a permanent skid track system with a width of 20–40 m.     

Determination of pre-compression stress of a variously grazed steppe soil under static and cyclic loading

In many land use systems all over the world soil deformation is a major problem due to increasing land use intensity. On arable soils machine traffic is continuously intensified with respect to load and wheeling frequency leading to (sub-)soil compaction and deeper soil degradation concerning hydraulic or pneumatic functions. Altered soil functions, in particular reduced hydraulic conductivities and impeded aeration, may decrease crop growth and productivity as well as the filtering and buffering capacity of soils. Prevented gas exchange and longer lasting anoxia in soils due to the reduced pore continuity and pore functioning also affects global change processes. In order to evaluate potential risks for irreversible soil deformation, it is necessary to quantify their mechanical stability. A commonly applied method is the determination of the pre-compression stress, commonly under static loading conditions in oedometer tests. The determination of pre-compression stresses under static loading may not quite resemble the conditions encountered in the field where soils are loaded repeatedly with a sequence of short intermittent loading–unloading–reloading events. Such dynamic loading conditions are encountered, e.g. at multiple wheel passes or in grassland soils due to animal trampling. In this study we present a comparison of a standard (static loading) and a modified (cyclic/dynamic loading) oedometer test using data of a Calcic Chernozem from the Inner Mongolian steppe under various grazing intensities. Static loading lasted for 10 min per loading step, while the dynamic/cyclic loading was carried out by 30 s loading and following 30 s unloading (=1 cycle) for in total 20 cycles. Differences between statically and cyclically determined pre-compression stresses at an identical time of loading show lower values for the statically determined pre-compression stress values compared to those determined cyclically. Among the dynamically determined pre-compression stresses, the values decrease with increasing number of loading steps and loading time, respectively. This is particularly true for the ungrazed sites.Thus, it could also be proofed that increased grazing intensities lead to structure deformation and increased sensitivity to wind- and water erosion followed by severe land degradation of grassland soils, particularly in semi-arid areas. Furthermore, hydraulic effects, e.g. positive pore water pressure due to intense shearing and kneading processes induced by grazing animals can enhance this structural deterioration.Thus, dynamic or cyclic loading results in an intense soil deformation which also causes serious changes in ecological and soil physical properties like hydraulic conductivity or gas flux.     

Effect of the number of tractor passes on soil rut depth and compaction in two tillage regimes

The initially high level of soil compaction in some direct sowing systems might suggest that the impact of subsequent traffic would be minimal, but data have not been consistent. In the other hand on freshly tilled soils, traffic causes significant increments in soil compaction. The aim of this paper was to quantify the interaction of the soil cone index and rut depth induced by traffic of two different weight tractors in two tillage regimes: (a) soil with 10 years under direct sowing system and (b) soil historically worked in conventional tillage system. Treatments included five different traffic frequencies (0, 1, 3, 5 and 10 passes repeatedly on the same track). The work was performed in the South of the Rolling Pampa region, Buenos Aires State, Argentina at 34°55′S, 57°57′W. Variables measured were (1) cone index in the 0–600 mm depth profile and (2) rut depth. Tyre sizes and rut depth/tyre width ratio are particularly important respect to compaction produced in the soil for different number of passes. Until five passes of tractor (2WD), ground pressure is responsible of the topsoil compaction. Until five passes the tyre with low rut depth/tyre width ratio reduced topsoil compaction. Finally, the farmer should pay attention to the axle load, the tyre size and the soil water content at the traffic moment.     

Stress relaxation of five different soil samples when uniaxially compacted at different water contents

The average size of rainfed and irrigated agricultural farms in Spain has grown steadily over the past two decades. This has called for the use of machinery of higher field capacity and greater weight that in turn requires a high drawbar power. All this has resulted in soil changes such as an increased compaction and compactibility. The confined uniaxial compression test was used to assess compaction and viscoelastic behavior of five soil samples from different agricultural areas of Spain. The bulk density–compression stress line was fitted to a three-parameter multiplicative compaction model and viscoelastic behavior was evaluated by means of stress-relaxation tests. The objectives were to determine to what extent the parameter coefficients of the compaction model equation and the relaxation of the stress induced in the compacted soil were influenced by the type of soil, its water content and the compression stress applied. Gravimetric water contents of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% were considered, and maximum normal stresses of 50, 100, 200 and 400 kPa were applied to the soils in a universal testing machine. The soil samples considered differed in texture, sandy loam (SL), sandy clay loam (SCL), loam (L), clay (C) and silt-loam (SiL), and organic matter content.

The slope of the bulk density-compression stress line at zero normal stress was strongly dependent on soil water content and plasticity index; whereas the slope of the curve at high applied normal stresses was influenced by soil moisture but not by soil plasticity. The viscoelastic behavior of the soils compared was dictated by their water content and plasticity index, as well as by the compression stress applied. The stress relaxation rate at time t=0 was scarcely influenced by water content. In fact, the rate remained constant over the water content range from 10 to 20% (w/w) at values that were higher than those obtained at 5 and 25% (w/w), which in turn were identical to each other. The stress-relaxation rate was also found to increase linearly with the logarithm of the compression stress. On the other hand, the residual stress decreased linearly with increasing water content. However, the latter increased linearly with compression stress. Increasing soil plasticity resulted in decreasing relaxation rate and increasing residual stress. Therefore, the more plastic the soil was the lower was the rate at which stress relaxation started and the smaller was the amount of stress dissipated.     

Compaction of a Eutric Cambisol under heavy wheel traffic in Switzerland:: Field data and a critical state soil mechanics model approach

Subsoil compaction has become a problem of world-wide concern, especially under highly mechanised agricultural practices. Severe structural degradation impedes plant growth. Therefore, compaction must be limited to layers which can be structurally reclaimed with reasonable effort by tillage. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of a single pass with a sugar beet harvester on the soil properties of an unploughed Eutric Cambisol. In autumn 1998 and 1999 field measurements and laboratory testing were carried out in Frauenfeld, Switzerland. The wheel loads were 107 kN in 1998 and 108 kN in 1999. Changes of bulk density, total porosity, macroporosity and pre-consolidation pressure show that compaction effects were restricted to the topsoil (0–0.25 m depth). Below 0.25 m depth no changes were measured. The compaction beneath the tyre was modelled with a two phase finite element model in the framework of critical state soil mechanics. The model predicts the degree and depth of compaction of an Eutric Cambisol caused by a single pass in Switzerland. Modelled data and field results agree quite well.     

Modelling compaction of agricultural subsoils by tracked heavy construction machinery under various moisture conditions in Switzerland

In recent years, agricultural land in Switzerland has been increasingly used as temporary access ways for heavy machinery in road and pipeline construction operations. The Swiss soil protection law requires that measures are taken to prevent soil compaction in such operations, but gives no criteria to determine tolerable loads. We studied the compaction sensitivity of a loess soil (Haplic Luvisol) at different soil moisture conditions in a field traffic experiment and by a numerical model on the computer using finite element analysis. Two plots, one wetted by sprinkling and one left dry (no sprinkling), were traversed by heavy caterpillar vehicles during construction of a large overland gas pipeline. Compaction effects were determined by comparing precompression stresses of samples taken from trafficked and non-trafficked soil. A finite element model with a constitutive relation, based on the concept of critical state soil mechanics, was used to interpret the outcome of the field trials.

We found significantly higher precompression stresses in the trafficked (median 97 kPa) compared with the non-trafficked (median 41 kPa) topsoil of the wet plot. No effect was evident in the topsoil of the dry plot as well as in the subsoils of the wet and the dry plot. The observed compaction effects were in agreement with the model predictions if the soil was assumed to be partially drained, but disagreed for the wet subsoil if fully drained conditions were assumed. Agreement between model and experimental results also required that the moisture dependence of the precompression stress was taken into account.     

Auswirkung mechanischer Belastungen auf die Redoxpotentiale von 3 Bodenmonolithen - ein Laborversuch

Compression effects on redoxpotential values in three soils The influence of a compaction on the changes of redoxpotential values in differently pretreated mountainous soils has been investigated. The results show that due to mechanical stresses the redoxpotential values are reduced, whereby discharging leads to a preload dependent increase of the values. A spatial and load dependent variation of the redoxpotential values can be measured, due to secondary pores which are built up because of that discharge. The results are discussed with regard to soil genetic questions as well as to soil physical problems.