Carbon sequestration and saving potential associated with changes to the management of agricultural soils in England

Abstract. The potential for soil organic carbon sequestration, energy savings and the reduction of the emission of greenhouse gases were investigated for a range of changes in the management of tilled land and managed grassland. These parameters were modelled on a regional basis, according to local soils and crop rotations in England, and avoided the use of soil related indices. The largest carbon sequestration and saving contribution possible comes from an increase in the proportion of permanent woodland, such that a 10% change in land use could amount to 9 Mt C yr⁻¹ in the initial years (arable and grassland). Changes in arable management could make a significant contribution to an abatement strategy if carried out in concert with greater use of permanent conservation field margins, increased returns of crop residues and reduced tillage systems, contributing 1.3 Mt C yr⁻¹ in the initial years. It should be noted, however, that true soil carbon sequestration would be only a minor component of this (125 kt C yr⁻¹), the main part being savings on CO₂ emissions from reduced energy use, and lower N₂O emissions from reduced use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer.     

Carbon sequestration in soils of central Asia

Problems of frequent drought stress, low soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration, low aggregation, susceptibility to compaction, salinization and accelerated soil erosion in dry regions are accentuated by removal of crop residues, mechanical methods of seedbed preparation, summer clean fallowing and overgrazing, and excessive irrigation. The attendant soil degradation and desertification lead to depletion of SOC, decline in biomass production, eutrophication/pollution of waters and emission of greenhouse gases. Adoption of conservation agriculture, based on the use of crop residue mulch and no till farming, can conserve water, reduce soil erosion, improve soil structure, enhance SOC concentration, and reduce the rate of enrichment of atmospheric CO₂. The rate of SOC sequestration with conversion to conservation agriculture, elimination of summer fallowing and growing forages/cover crops may be 100 to 200 kg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ in coarse‐textured soils of semiarid regions and 150 to 300 kg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ in heavy‐textured soils of the subhumid regions. The potential of soil C sequestration in central Asia is 10 to 22 Tg C y⁻¹ (16±8 Tg C y⁻¹) for about 50 years, and it represents 20 per cent of the CO₂ emissions by fossil fuel combustion. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Carbon and nitrogen sequestration and soil aggregation under sorghum cropping sequences

Management practices, such as no tillage (NT) and intensive cropping, have potential to increase C and N sequestration in agricultural soils. The objectives of this study were to investigate the impacts of conventional tillage (CT), NT, and cropping intensity on soil organic C (SOC) and N (SON) sequestration and on distribution within aggregate-size fractions in a central Texas soil after 20 years of treatment imposition. Tillage regime and cropping sequence significantly impacted both SOC and SON sequestration. At 0–5 cm, NT increased SOC storage compared to CT by 33% and 97% and SON storage by 25% and 117% for a sorghum/wheat/soybean (SWS) rotation and a continuous sorghum monoculture, respectively. Total SOC and SON storage at both 0–5 and 5–15 cm was greater for SWS than continuous sorghum regardless of tillage regime. The majority of SOC and SON storage at 0–5 cm was observed in 250-m to 2-mm aggregates, and at 5–15 cm, in the >2-mm and 250-m to 2-mm fractions. Averaged across cropping sequences at 0–5 cm, NT increased SOC storage compared to CT by 212%, 96%, 0%, and 31%, and SON storage by 122%, 92%, 0%, and 37% in >2-mm, 250-m to 2-mm, 53- to 250-m, and <53-m aggregate-size fractions. No tillage and increased cropping intensity improved soil fertility by increasing soil organic matter levels and potential nutrient supply to crops.     

Carbon sequestration in two Brazilian Cerrado soils under no-till

A considerable proportion of the 200 million hectares of the Brazilian Cerrado is suitable for annual crops but little is known about the effects of tillage on the C dynamics of Cerrado soils. We evaluated the role of two representative Cerrado Oxisols (350 and 650 g clay kg⁻¹) as sources or sinks of atmospheric C when managed under three tillage systems (conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT), and no-till (NT)) in 8- and 5-year long-term experiments. A literature review was also carried out and the mean C sequestration rates in no-till soils of tropical and subtropical regions of Brazil were calculated and compared with values for soils from temperate regions of the world. The original C stocks in 0–20 cm layer of soils under native Cerrado were higher in the clayey (54.0 Mg ha⁻¹) than in the sandy clay loam soil (35.4 Mg ha⁻¹), suggesting a higher physical stability of organic matter associated with variable clay minerals in the clayey Oxisol. The original C stocks of the native Cerrado soils appear not to have decreased after 23 years of conventional tillage in the sandy clay loam Oxisol, except when the soil had been subjected to erosion (15% loss of C), or after 25 years in the clayey Oxisol. Compared to conventionally tilled soil, the C stocks in no-till sandy clay loam Oxisol increased by 2.4 Mg ha⁻¹ (C sequestration rate = 0.30 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) and in the clayey Oxisol by 3.0 Mg ha⁻¹ (C sequestration rate = 0.60 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹). The mean rate of C sequestration in the no-till Brazilian tropical soils was estimated to be 0.35 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, similar to the 0.34 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ reported for soils from temperate regions but lower than the 0.48 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ estimated for southern Brazilian subtropical soils. Considering the large area (about 70 million hectares) of the Cerrado which is currently used and potentially available for cropland, the adoption of no-till systems could turn the Cerrado soils into a significant sink for atmospheric C and contribute to the mitigation of global climate change.     

Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils in the Cerrado region of the Brazilian Amazon

The introduction of crop management practices after conversion of Amazon Cerrado into cropland influences soil C stocks and has direct and indirect consequences on greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. The aim of this study was to quantify soil C sequestration, through the evaluation of the changes in C stocks, as well as the GHG fluxes (N₂O and CH₄) during the process of conversion of Cerrado into agricultural land in the southwestern Amazon region, comparing no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) systems. We collected samples from soils and made gas flux measurements in July 2004 (the dry season) and in January 2005 (the wet season) at six areas: Cerrado, CT cultivated with rice for 1 year (1CT) and 2 years (2CT), and NT cultivated with soybean for 1 year (1NT), 2 years (2NT) and 3 years (3NT), in each case after a 2-year period of rice under CT. Soil samples were analyzed in both seasons for total organic C and bulk density. The soil C stocks, corrected for a mass of soil equivalent to the 0–30-cm layer under Cerrado, indicated that soils under NT had generally higher C storage compared to native Cerrado and CT soils. The annual C accumulation rate in the conversion of rice under CT into soybean under NT was 0.38 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Although CO₂ emissions were not used in the C sequestration estimates to avoid double counting, we did include the fluxes of this gas in our discussion. In the wet season, CO₂ emissions were twice as high as in the dry season and the highest N₂O emissions occurred under the NT system. There were no CH₄ emissions to the atmosphere (negative fluxes) and there were no significant seasonal variations. When N₂O and CH₄ emissions in C-equivalent were subtracted (assuming that the measurements made on 4 days were representative of the whole year), the soil C sequestration rate of the conversion of rice under CT into soybean under NT was 0.23 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Although there were positive soil C sequestration rates, our results do not present data regarding the full C balance in soil management changes in the Amazon Cerrado.     

Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane dynamics in boreal organic agricultural soils with different soil characteristics

The annual carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and methane (CH₄) dynamics were measured with static chambers on two organic agricultural soils with different soil characteristics. Site 1 had a peat layer of 30 cm, with an organic matter (OM) content of 74% in the top 20 cm. Site 2 had a peat layer of 70 cm but an OM content of only 40% in the top 20 cm. On both sites there were plots under barley and grass and also plots where the vegetation was removed. All soils were net sources of CO₂ and N₂O, but they consumed atmospheric CH₄. Soils under barley had higher net CO₂ emissions (830 g CO₂-C m⁻² yr⁻¹) and N₂O emissions (848 mg N₂O-N m⁻² yr⁻¹) than those under grass (395 g CO₂-C m⁻³ yr⁻¹ and 275 mg N₂O-N m⁻² yr⁻¹). Bare soils had the highest N₂O emissions, mean 2350 mg N₂O-N m⁻² yr⁻¹. The mean CH₄ uptake rate from vegetated soils was 100 mg CH₄-C m⁻³ yr⁻¹ and from bare soils 55 mg CH₄-C m⁻² yr⁻¹. The net CO₂ emissions were higher from Site 2, which had a high peat bulk density and a low OM content derived from the addition of mineral soil to the peat during the cultivation history of that site. Despite the differences in soil characteristics, the mean N₂O emissions were similar from vegetated peat soils from both sites. However, bare soils from Site 2 with mineral soil addition had N₂O emissions of 2-9 times greater than those from Site 1. Site 1 consumed atmospheric CH₄ at a higher rate than Site 2 with additional mineral soil. N₂O emissions during winter were an important component of the N₂O budget even though they varied greatly, ranging from 2 to 99% (mean 26%) of the annual emission.     

Carbon and nitrogen stocks in the soils of Central and Eastern Europe

Abstract. Soil organic carbon and total nitrogen stocks are presented for Central and Eastern Europe. The study uses the soil geographic and attribute data held in a 1:2 500 000 scale Soil and Terrain (SOTER) database, covering Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Romania, the Russian Federation (west of the Urals), Slovakia, and Ukraine. Means and coefficients of variation for soil organic carbon and total nitrogen are presented for each major FAO soil grouping. The mean content of organic carbon, to a depth of 1 m, ranges from 3.9 kg C m^–2 for coarse textured Arenosols to 72.9 kg C m^–2 for poorly drained Histosols. Mean carbon content for the mineral soils, excluding Arenosols, is 15.8 kg C m^–2. The top 1 m of soil holds 110 Pg C (Pg=10¹⁵ g), which corresponds to about 7% of the global stock of soil organic carbon. About 44% of this carbon pool is held in the top 0.3 m of the soil, the layer that is most prone to be changed by changes in soil use and management. About 166 million ha in Central and Eastern Europe have been degraded by compaction, erosion of topsoil, fertility decline and crusting. The achievable level of carbon sequestration for these soils, upon adoption of 'best' management practices or restorative measures, is estimated.     

Carbon stocks and sequestration potentials of agricultural soils in the federal state of Baden‐Württemberg,SW Germany

Soil organic carbon (SOC) inventories are important tools for studying the effects of land‐use and climate change and evaluating climate‐change policies. A detailed inventory of SOC in the agricultural soils of the federal state of Baden‐Württemberg was therefore prepared based on the highest‐resolution geo‐referenced soil, land‐use, and climate data (BÜK200 inventory). In order to estimate the quality of different approaches, C inventories of the region were also prepared based on data from the National Inventory Report (UBA, 2003) and by applying the IPCC (1997) method to the two data sets. Finally, the BÜK200 inventory was used to estimate potentials of no‐tillage agriculture (NT) and peatland restoration to contribute to C sequestration and greenhouse‐gas (GHG)‐emission mitigation since both measures are discussed in this context. Scenario assumptions were change to NT on 40% of the cropland and restoration of 50% of cultivated peatlands within 20 years. On average, grasslands contained 9.5 kg C m^–2 to 0.3 m depth as compared to only 6.0 kg C m^–2 under cropland, indicating strong land‐use effects. The SOC content depended strongly on waterlogging and elevation, thus reflecting reduced C mineralization under aquic moisture regimes and low temperatures. Comparison of the BÜK200 inventory with the approach used for UBA (2003) showed high inconsistencies due to map resolution and SOC contents, whereas the IPCC method led to fairly good agreements. Results on the simulated effects of NT and peatland restoration suggested that 5%–14% of total agricultural GHG emissions could be abated with NT whereas peat restoration appeared to have a minor mitigation potential (0.2%–2.7%) because the total area of cultivated organic soils was too small to have larger impact.     

Carbon cycling and sequestration opportunities in temperate grasslands

Abstract. Temperate grasslands account for c. 20% of the land area in Europe. Carbon accumulation in grassland ecosystems occurs mostly below ground and changes in soil organic carbon stocks may result from land use changes (e.g. conversion of arable land to grassland) and grassland management. Grasslands also contribute to the biosphere–atmosphere exchange of non-CO₂ radiatively active trace gases, with fluxes intimately linked to management practices. In this article, we discuss the current knowledge on carbon cycling and carbon sequestration opportunities in temperate grasslands. First, from a simple two-parameter exponential model fitted to literature data, we assess soil organic carbon fluxes resulting from land use change (e.g. between arable and grassland) and from grassland management. Second, we discuss carbon fluxes within the context of farming systems, including crop–grass rotations and farm manure applications. Third, using a grassland ecosystem model (PaSim), we provide estimates of the greenhouse gas balance, in CO₂ equivalents, of pastures for a range of stocking rates and of N fertilizer applications. Finally, we consider carbon sequestration opportunities for France resulting from the restoration of grasslands and from the de-intensification of intensive livestock breeding systems. We emphasize major uncertainties concerning the magnitude and non-linearity of soil carbon stock changes in agricultural grasslands as well as the emissions of N₂O from soil and of CH₄ from grazing livestock.     

Potential carbon stock in Japanese forest soils – simulated impact of forest management and climate change using the CENTURY model

Forest management and climate change may have a substantial impact on future soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks at the country scale. Potential SOC in Japanese forest soils was regionally estimated under nine forest managements and a climate change scenario using the CENTURY ecosystem model. Three rotations (30, 50, 100 yr) and three thinning regimes were tested: no‐thinning; 30% of the trees cut in the middle of the rotation (e.g. 15 year in a 30‐yr rotation) and thinned trees all left as litter or slash (ThinLef) and the trees from thinning removed from the forest (ThinRem). A climate change scenario was tested (ca. 3 °C increase in air temperature and 9% increase in precipitation). The model was run at 1 km resolution using climate, vegetation and soil databases. The estimated SOC stock ranged from 1600 to 1830 TgC (from 6800 to 7800 gC/m²), and the SOC stock was largest with the longest rotation and was largest under ThinLef with all three rotations. Despite an increase in net primary production, the SOC stock decreased by 5% under the climate change scenario.     

Impacts of agricultural management practices on C sequestration in forest-derived soils of the eastern Corn Belt

Soil organic matter has recently been implicated as an important sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂). However, the relative impacts of various agricultural management practices on soil organic matter dynamics and, therefore, C sequestration at spatial scales larger than a single plot or times longer than the typical three year experiment have rarely been reported. Results of maintaining agricultural management practices in the forest-derived soils of the eastern Corn (Zea mays L.) Belt states of Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania (USA) were studied. We found annual organic C input and tillage intensity were the most important factors in affecting C sequestration. The impact of rotation on C sequestration was primarily related to the way it altered annual total C inputs. The removal of above-ground plant biomass and use of cover crops were of lesser importance. The most rapid changes in soil organic matter content occurred during the first five years after a management practice was imposed with slower changes occurring thereafter. Certain management practices, e.g. no-tillage (NT), increased the soil's ability to sequester atmospheric CO₂. The impact of this sequestration will be significant only when these practices are used extensively on a large percentage of cropland and when the C-building practices are maintained. Any soil C sequestered will be rapidly mineralized to CO₂ if the soil organic matter building practices are not maintained.     

Carbon cycling and sequestration opportunities in South America: the case of Brazil

Abstract. A carbon emission inventory of the Brazilian agricultural sector was used to compare greenhouse gas emissions with estimated carbon offsets promoted by two main changes in agricultural management: the replacement of conventional tillage by no-tillage and the cessation of annual burning in sugar cane production. Using the IPCC revised 1996 guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, we estimate that 12.65 Mt C are emitted annually from agricultural land in Brazil. Ongoing conversion of conventionally tilled land to no-tillage currently accumulates 9 Mt C yr⁻¹. Industrial by-products like alcohol and bagasse from sugar cane processing substitute fossil fuel for transportation and power generation offsetting 10 and 8 Mt C yr⁻¹, respectively. An additional opportunity for 0.53 Mt C yr⁻¹ sequestration is presented by avoiding burning before harvesting of sugar cane. These data show that there could be almost full compensation between sources and sinks/offsets in the agricultural carbon cycle. There is a great opportunity to achieve this mitigation benefit because the adoption of new technologies is increasing rapidly.     

北京城市园林树木碳贮量与固碳量研究

为了解北京城市园林树木碳库的贮量及其固碳效果,在1995年和2000年北京城市园林绿化普查资料的基础上,结合遥感影像,对北京城市园林树木碳贮量进行计算。结果表明:2002年北京城市园林树木总碳贮量约为58.88万t,单位建成区面积碳贮量为7.70t/hm2;近年来北京园林树木碳贮量正逐年增加,2002年新增碳贮量达0.46万t。     

Carbon sequestration in a limestone quarry mine soil amended with sewage sludge

To reclaim a limestone quarry, 200 and 400 Mg/ha of municipal sewage sludge were mixed with an infertile calcareous substrate and spread as mine soil in 1992. Soil samples were taken 1 week later and again after 17 yr of mine soil rehabilitation so as to assess changes in the amount and persistence of soil organic carbon (SOC). Sludge application increased SOC as a function of the sludge rate at both sampling times. Seventeen years after the sludge amendments, the nonhydrolysable carbon was increased in the 400 Mg/ha of sludge treatment. The recalcitrance of SOC was less in sludge‐amended soils than in the control treatment at the initial sampling, but 17 yr later this trend had reversed, showing qualitative changes in soil organic carbon. The CO₂‐C production had not differed between treatments, yet the percentage of mineralized SOC was less in the high sludge dose. When the size of active (C_active) and slow (C_slow) potentially mineralizable C pools was calculated by curve fitting of a double‐exponential equation, the proportion of C_active was observed to be smaller in the 400 Mg/ha sludge treatment. Soil aggregate stability, represented by the mean weight diameter of water‐stable soil aggregates, was significantly greater in mine soil treated with the high dose of sludge (18.5%) and SOC tended to be concentrated in macro‐aggregates (5–2 mm). Results suggest that SOC content in sludge‐amended plots was preserved due by (i) replacement of the labile organic carbon of sludge by more stable compounds and (ii) protection of SOC in aggregates.     

Potential for soil carbon sequestration of eroded areas in subtropical China

Soil plays an important role in the global carbon cycle, and carbon sequestration in soil is important for mitigating global climate change. Historically, soil erosion led to great reductions of soil organic carbon (SOC) storage in China. Fortunately, with the economic development and remarkably effective soil erosion control measures in subtropical China over the past 20 years, soil erosion has been greatly decreased. As a result, soil organic carbon sequestration has gradually increased due to the rapid recovery of vegetation in the area. However, little information exists concerning the potential of soil carbon sequestration in the area. This paper introduces a case study in Xingguo County, Jiangxi Province, China, which used to be a typical area with significant soil loss in subtropical China. This work represents a systematic investigation of the interrelations of carbon sequestration potential with soil erosion types, altitudes, soil types and soil parent materials. In this study, 284 soil samples were collected from 151 sampling sites (51 are soil profile sites) to determine soil physicochemical properties including organic carbon content. Soil organic carbon distribution maps of the surface layer (0–20 cm) and whole profile (0–100 cm) were compiled by linking soil types to the polygons of digital soil maps using GIS. Assuming that SOC was lost following the destruction of native vegetation, these lands hold great promise for potentially sequestering carbon again. The potential of soil carbon sequestration in the study area was estimated by subtracting the organic carbon status in eroded soils from that in non-eroded soils under undisturbed forest. Results show that the potential of SOC in the surface layer is 4.47 Tg C while that in the whole profile is 12.3 Tg C for the entire county. The greatest potential for carbon sequestration (3.72 Tg C) is found in severely eroded soil, while non-eroded soil has the smallest potential. Also, soil carbon sequestration potential decreases with increasing altitude. Soils at altitudes of <300 m show the greatest potential (5.01 Tg C), while those of >800 m have the smallest potential (0.25 Tg C). Among various soil types, red earths (Humic Acrisols) have the greatest potential of carbon sequestration (5.32 Tg C), and yellow earths (Ferralic Cambisols) have the smallest (0.15 Tg C). As for soils derived from various parent materials, soils derived from phyllite possess the greatest carbon sequestration potential, and soils from Quaternary red clays have the smallest.     

Regional estimates of carbon sequestration potential: linking the Rothamsted Carbon Model to GIS databases

 Soil organic matter (SOM) represents a major pool of carbon within the biosphere. It is estimated at about 1400 Pg globally, which is roughly twice that in atmospheric CO₂. The soil can act as both a source and a sink for carbon and nutrients. Changes in agricultural land use and climate can lead to changes in the amount of carbon held in soils, thus, affecting the fluxes of CO₂ to and from the atmosphere. Some agricultural management practices will lead to a net sequestration of carbon in the soil. Regional estimates of the carbon sequestration potential of these practices are crucial if policy makers are to plan future land uses to reduce national CO₂ emissions. In Europe, carbon sequestration potential has previously been estimated using data from the Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems Soil Organic Matter Network (GCTE SOMNET). Linear relationships between management practices and yearly changes in soil organic carbon were developed and used to estimate changes in the total carbon stock of European soils. To refine these semi-quantitative estimates, the local soil type, meteorological conditions and land use must also be taken into account. To this end, we have modified the Rothamsted Carbon Model, so that it can be used in a predictive manner, with SOMNET data. The data is then adjusted for local conditions using Geographical Information Systems databases. In this paper, we describe how these developments can be used to estimate carbon sequestration at the regional level using a dynamic simulation model linked to spatially explicit data. Some calculations of the potential effects of afforestation on soil carbon stocks in Central Hungary provide a simple example of the system in use. Received: 1 December 1997     

Survey on the metal contamination of agricultural soils in Georgia

There is only sparse information on the metal contamination of agricultural soils in the former Soviet Union and the development of impacts during the process of transformation to a private structure of production. In this study a first overview on the metal load (Pb, Zn, Cu, Cr, Mn) of agricultural soils in central and eastern regions of Georgia is given using 251 subsamples from 106 profiles on 37 plots. While the data sets for lead (Pb) and chromium (Cr) are rather homogeneous and range only within narrow limits, the contents of zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) vary much more. Additionally, manganese (Mn) was tested. Here the data vary largely, which is probably due to the natural soil loads. Very low loads for all investigated metals are typical for communally used pastures (Allmende) and especially for a biologically managed farm. On the contrary, Cu loads frequently exceed the median by more than five to ten times (the maximum value is 1023 mg kg⁻¹) in vineyards. The comparison of complete soil profiles proves that this is due to the application of copper sulphate for pest control. In the Bolnisi region south of Tbilisi extremely high loads in the upper soil horizons are found not only for Cu, but for Zn as well, ranging up to 794 mg kg⁻¹. Compared to all other data, the loads for Pb and Cr are also high in several samples. Cu, Zn and Pb are significantly correlated to one another in the Bolnisi region. This striking situation most probably results from the frequent irrigation of the plots by industrially contaminated water from the Mashawera River. Due to economic deficiencies the application of chemicals in Georgian agriculture has dropped heavily since 1990. Consequently, the metal contamination of agricultural soils in general is rather low, being far below western European tolerance limits. Intensive pasturing might even cause values close to the natural loads due to erosion and/or the export by the way of plants and livestock. On the other hand, some specific types of land use cause serious environmental problems. This is especially true for vineyards and plots that are irrigated with contaminated water. Overgrazed plots tend to soil erosion. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Carbon Sequestration in Kiwifruit Orchard Soils at Depth to Mitigate Carbon Emissions

Management practices designed to increase carbon sequestration via perennial tree crops are potential tools to mitigate the consequences of climate change. Changes in orchard management could enable growers to meet eco-verification market demands for products with a low carbon footprint and potentially exploit the emerging business opportunity in carbon storage, while enhancing the delivery of ecosystem services that depend on soil carbon stocks. However, there is no standard methodology to verify any potential claims of carbon storage by perennial vine crops. We developed a robust methodology to quantify carbon storage in kiwifruit orchards. Soil carbon stocks (SCS) were determined in six depth increments to 1 m deep in two adjacent kiwifruit blocks, which had been established 10 (“young”) and 25 (“old”) years earlier. We used a space-for-time analysis. Our key results were the young and old kiwifruit block stored about 139 and 145 t C/ha to 1 m depth. Between 80–90 percent of the SCS were stored in the top 0.5 m, and 89–95 percent in the top 0.7 m; there was no significant difference between the SCS in row and alley to a depth of 0.5 m; a CV of 5–15 percent indicates that 4–10 cores are needed for 80 percent confidence in the estimated SCS; we recommend separating each core into the depths 0–0.1, 0.1–0.3, 0.3–0.5, and 0.5–1 m to allow the assessment of SCS dynamics; we detected a weak spatial pattern of the SCS only for the old kiwifruit block with a range of about 3 m. A sampling bay along a vine row should have a maximum length of 3 m. We then assessed SCS in more than sixty kiwifruit orchards throughout New Zealand. They stored on average 174.9 ± 3 t C ha^?1 to 1 m depth. On average, 51 percent of the SCS down to 1 m depth were stored in the top 0.3 m, which is the standard depth according to the Kyoto protocol. About 72 percent of the SCS to 1 m depth were captured when increasing the sampling depth to 0.5 m. These results underscore the necessity to analyze SCS in an orchard to at least 0.5 m deep. Using the same methodology to 1 m deep, we determined SCS in two wine grape vineyards on shallow, stony alluvial soils. We found a difference between vineyard and adjacent pasture SCS of nearly 16 t/ha. As the vines are 25 years old, this equates to carbon sequestration rates of 640 kg ha^?1 yr^?1. Our results of the space-for-time analysis also showed that all sequestration had occurred below 0.5 m. Therefore, we decided to sample C to a greater depth. In a 30-year old kiwifruit orchard and an adjacent pasture, SCS was measured to 9 m deep. In the kiwifruit orchard, we found a sequestration rate of 6.3 tons of C per hectare per year greater than in the adjacent pasture that was the antecedent land use.     

Carbon turnover and sequestration potential of fodder radish cover crop

We studied fodder radish carbon turnover as affected by soil tillage in Foulum, Denmark. Actively growing fodder radish monoliths from direct‐drilled (DD) and conventionally tilled (CT) plots were extracted and labelled regularly with ¹⁴C isotope across their entire growth period. At the end of the fodder radish growth cycle, labelled biomass was harvested and incorporated into the same monolith. These monoliths were destructively sampled at biomass incorporation, 4, 8 and 18 months after incorporation. For each sampling period, soil and root samples were taken at 0‐ to 10‐, 10‐ to 25‐, and 25‐ to 45‐cm‐depth increments for determination of ¹⁴C distribution and retention. Carbon‐14 declined significantly with increasing soil depth at each sampling for the two tillage practices (P < 0.05). We further observed significantly higher ¹⁴C at 0–10 cm for DD than for CT at 4 and 8 months after biomass incorporation. For the 10–25 cm depth, ¹⁴C was significantly higher for CT than for DD, 4 and 8 months after incorporation. However, despite these depth‐specific differences, cumulative (0–45 cm soil depth) ¹⁴C retention was similar for DD and CT treatments for all the sampling periods. On the basis of a CN‐SIM model forecast, we estimated that over a 30‐yr period of continuous autumn fodder radish establishment, at least 4.9 t C/ha fodder radish C with a residence time of more than 20 yr could be stored in the soil.