Computed tomography of the abdomen in Saanen goats: I. reticulum, rumen and omasum

Computed tomography (CT) of the reticulum, rumen and omasum was carried out in 30 healthy goats and the images were compared to corresponding body sections obtained at postmortem. A multidetector CT was used to examine goats in sternal recumbency. A setting of 120 KV and 270 mA was used to produce 1.5-mm transverse slices from the fifth thoracic vertebra to the sacrum. Soft tissue structures were assessed in a soft tissue with a window width (W) of 400 Hounsfield Units (HU), and a window level (L) of 40 HU. The layering of the ruminal contents was assessed in an ingesta window with a W of 1500 HU and an L of 30 HU. After subjective evaluation, the size of the rumen and omasum, the thickness of the walls of the reticulum, rumen and omasum and the height of the gas cap and fibre and liquid phases of the rumen were measured. Fifteen goats were euthanised after CT examination, placed in sternal recumbency and frozen at -18 oC for three to 10 days. Thirteen goats were then cut into 1.0- to 1.5-cm-thick transverse slices. One goat was cut in dorsal-plane slices and another in sagittal slices. The structures in the CT images were identified by using the corresponding anatomical slices.     

Computed tomography of the abdomen in Saanen goats: II. liver, spleen, abomasum, and intestine

This study describes the results of computed tomography (CT) of the liver, spleen, abomasum, small intestine and large intestine in 30 healthy Saanen goats. CT examination and anatomical slice preparation postmortem were performed as described in the first communication. After subjective evaluation of the CT images, various variables including the length/size, volume and density of the liver, spleen and gallbladder, the wall thickness of the abomasum, small intestine and large intestine and the diameter of the intestine were measured. The liver, spleen, abomasum, small intestine and large intestine could be accurately visualised using CT.     

Ultrasonography of the urinary tract in 29 female Saanen goats

The left and right kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra of 29 female clinically healthy Saanen goats were examined via transcutaneous and transrectal ultrasonography. In order to establish reference values the examinations were performed using a 5.0 MHz linear transducer to scan the right caudal costal part of the abdominal wall, right and left dorsal flanks and right and left inguinal regions of standing goats. A 5.0 MHz intracavity probe was used for transrectal ultrasonographic examination of the urinary bladder and urethra. The kidneys were examined in longitudinal and cross section and assessed subjectively. They could usually be seen from the 12th intercostal space on the right side and dorsal right flank. The right kidney was 8.0 ± 0.67 cm long and the left was 8.4 ± 0.64 cm long. The ureters could not be visualized in any of the goats. The length of the urinary bladder was 5.1 ± 1.38 cm, and its largest cross-sectional diameter was 2.6 ± 1.01 cm. The urethra was seen in 23 goats and appeared as echogenic lines with no visible lumen. The transition from the neck of the bladder to the internal urethral orifice extended beyond the brim of the pelvis in only one goat.     

Ultrasonography of the abomasum in 30 Saanen goats

This report describes the findings of ultrasonographic examination of the abomasum in 30 goats. A 5.0 MHz linear transducer was used to scan the left and right paramedian regions, the linea alba and the right abdominal wall of standing goats. The abomasum appeared as a heterogeneous, moderately echogenic structure with echogenic stippling. The abomasum could be seen from the linea alba in all the goats. The abomasal folds were easily identified in 19 goats and appeared as prominent echogenic bands. The cranial visible limit of the abomasum was -0.3 [2.34]cm from the xyphoid, and the caudal limit was 10.3 [3.08]cm caudal to the xyphoid. The visible length of the abomasum was 10.7 [1.96]cm and the maximum width 30.2 [7.43]cm. The height of the abomasum was 6.7 [1.79]cm.     

Ultrasonography of the rumen in 30 Saanen goats

This study describes the results of ultrasonographic examination of the rumen in 30 healthy Saanen goats. A linear or convex transducer with a variable frequency of 5 to 13 MHz was used to scan standing, non-sedated goats. The location and size of the rumen, the distance between the wall of the rumen and abdominal wall and the appearance and size of the gas, fibre mat and fluid layers of the ruminal contents were assessed. The rumen was seen as a large organ medial to the left abdominal wall. The wall of the rumen appeared as a thick echogenic line. The longitudinal groove was seen as an echogenic notch, which divided the rumen into the dorsal and ventral sacs. The rumen could be visualized from the 9th to 12th intercostal space (ICS) and flank on the left side in all the goats. The rumen was largest in the 12th ICS at 41.6 ± 5.13 cm and smallest in the 8th ICS at 11.3 ± 4.29 cm. The dorsal sac of the rumen was largest in the left cranial flank (17.4 ± 4.43 cm) and the ventral sac was largest in the 12th ICS on the left (29.1 ± 6.03 cm). In the cranial left flank, the rumen was situated immediately adjacent to the abdominal wall in all the goats. The spleen was located between the rumen and abdominal wall in the 8th to 12 th ICS in many of the goats. The gas, fibre mat and fluid layers of the ruminal contents could be visualized in all the goats. The gas layer was 9.9 ± 3.05 cm, the fibre mat layer 16.0 ± 4.55 cm and the fluid layer 12.2 ± 5.57 cm.     

Experimental evaluation of urinary bladder marsupialization in male goats

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the outcome of urinary bladder marsupialization in male goats. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, experimental study. ANIMALS: Six healthy mixed-breed male goats. METHODS: After experimentally induced urethral obstruction, 6 male goats had urinary bladder marsupialization. Renal ultrasonography, complete blood count, and serum biochemical analysis were evaluated preoperatively (day 0), at 7 postoperative days, and then at 30-day intervals until 180 days. Stomal diameter was recorded immediately postoperatively and at each postoperative interval. Necropsy examination was performed on day 180 or when stomal stricture or death occurred. RESULTS: Stomal stricture occurred in 1 goat at 120 days. Another goat was found dead at 150 days; severe, suppurative cystitis was identified on necropsy. All goats had mild urine scald dermatitis. Serum biochemical values remained within normal limits, but significant decreases in white blood cell count, serum creatinine concentration, and stomal diameter occurred. At necropsy, all bladders were tubular in shape. Histological evidence of chronic suppurative cystitis and chronic, mild lymphoplasmacytic pyelitis occurred in all goats. Bacterial culture of renal tissue yielded growth in 3 goats, and bladder mucosal swabs yielded bacterial growth in all goats. CONCLUSIONS: Although clinical signs of ascending urinary tract infection were not observed in goats with patent stomata, urinary bladder marsupialization may result in ascending urinary tract inflammation or infection. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Based on our results, urinary bladder marsupialization should be recommended with caution as the primary method for management of urinary tract obstruction in clinical cases.     

Computed tomography measurements of thoracic structures in 26 clinically normal goats

There is increasing evidence that activation of innate immunity, in animals and man, by live vaccines, sub-unit vaccines or synthetic or non-synthetic stimulants can induce a profound and rapidly induced resistance to pathogens, including infectious agents that are unrelated to the stimulating antigen or agent. We review the evidence for this phenomenon and present the proposition that this approach might be used to stimulate immunity during the life of the animal when susceptibility to infection is high and when normal vaccination procedures may be inappropriate.     

Ultrasonography of the reticulum in 30 healthy Saanen goats

Background

The reticulum plays a crucial role in the ruminant digestive tract because the primary cycle of rumen motility always starts with a reticular contraction. In contrast to cattle, there are only few results on the ultrasonographic examination of the reticulum in goats. Therefore, it was the goal of the present study, to describe the results of ultrasonography of the reticulum of 30 healthy Saanen goats.

Methods

Ultrasonography was carried out on standing, non-sedated animals using a 5.0 MHz linear transducer. The shape, contour and motility of the reticulum were investigated. A nine-minute video recording of the reticulum was made for each goat and the frequency, duration and amplitude of reticular contractions were calculated as described for cattle.

Results

The reticulum appeared as a crescent-shaped structure with a smooth contour located immediately adjacent to the diaphragm. 0.8 to 2.1 (1.41 ± 0.31) reticular contractions were seen per minute. In all goats, biphasic reticular contractions were observed. 90% of the goats also had monophasic reticular contractions, and two had triphasic contractions. During the nine-minute observation periods, there were 0 to 6 monophasic reticular contractions and 6 to 15 biphasic contractions per goat. The duration of the biphasic contractions was 6.56 ± 0.74 s, which was significantly longer than the monophasic contractions at 4.31 ± 0.81 s. The average interval between two reticular contractions was 45.06 ± 12.57 s.

Conclusion

Ultrasonography of the reticulum in goats is a valuable tool to characterise the appearance and motility of this organ. In addition to the biphasic motility pattern seen in cattle the reticular motility of goats is characterized by monophasic reticular contractions. The results of the present study are an important contribution for better understanding of the reticular motility in goats.     

Computed tomographic features of urinary bladder torsion in two dogs

Urinary bladder torsion is rare in dogs. It is characterised by rotation of the organ along its longitudinal axis and is potentially life‐threatening because of urinary flow obstruction with subsequent urine retention, hydroureter, hydronephrosis and azotaemia. This report describes the computed tomographic features of urinary bladder torsion in two dogs. In both cases, the hallmark indicative of torsion was the “whirl sign,” originating from the twisted pelvic urethra and urinary bladder neck encircling the ureters, blood vessels and bladder ligaments in a characteristic spiral pattern. The imaging features correlated well with surgical findings, demonstrating high sensitivity of computed tomography in the preoperative diagnosis of urinary bladder torsion.     

Occurrence and diversity of coccidia in indigenous, Saanen and crossbred goats in South Africa

Occurrence and diversity of Eimeria species in two groups of indigenous South African goats kept under traditional management systems, as well as in a mixed herd of Saanen, indigenous and crossbred goats kept under an intensive management system were examined. Infection rates ranged from 88.7 to 100% in the various groups. Mean OPG of immature goats (< 1 year old) exceeded that of adult goats at all three sites. There was no consistent difference between adult OPG counts at the three sites. Under the intensive system, adult crossbred goats had significantly higher OPG counts than adult Saanen or indigenous goats. Overall, OPG counts of immature goats were significantly higher during the dry season (winter) than during the wet season (summer). Ten Eimeria species were identified, Eimeria arloingi being the most prevalent species at all three sites, followed by Eimeria hirci. Up to seven Eimeria species were recovered from individual specimens.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the small intestine, large intestine and greater omentum in 30 Saanen goats

The small and large intestine of 30 healthy Saanen goats were examined ultrasonographically using a 5.0 MHz-linear transducer. The goats were examined on the right side, from the eighth rib to the caudal aspect of the flank. The small and large intestine could be easily differentiated. The descending duodenum could be imaged in 19 goats, and the jejunum and ileum seen in all goats. The jejunum and ileum were most often seen in cross-section and rarely in longitudinal section in the ventral region of the right flank. The intestinal contents were usually homogenously echoic, and active motility was observed in all the goats. The diameter of the small intestine was 0.8–2.7 cm (1.6 [0.33] cm). The spiral ansa of the colon was imaged in all the goats, and in 21 the caecum was also seen. Both these sections of large intestine were most commonly seen in the dorsal region of the right flank. The spiral ansa of the colon was easily identified by its spiral arrangement of centripetal and centrifugal gyri, which had a garland-like appearance. Because of intraluminal gas, only the wall of the colon closest to the transducer could be imaged. The diameter of the spiral colon ranged from 0.8 to 2.0 cm (1.1 [0.24] cm). Usually only the wall of the caecum closest to the transducer could be imaged and it appeared as a thick, echoic, slightly undulating line. The greater omentum could be seen in all the goats.     

Ultrasonographic and echobiometric findings in the eyes of Saanen goats of different ages

Objective  To determine ultrasonographic and echobiometric findings in the eyes of goats of different ages. B and A mode ultrasonography was performed in 55 healthy Saanen goats (110 eyes) of ages 45 ( n  =   15), 180 ( n  =   20), and 549 days ( n  =   20).
Procedures  Transcorneal ultrasonography was performed after instillation of a topical anesthetic and application of acoustic transmission gel on the 20-MHz linear transducer tip. The transducer was placed in a longitudinal position until optimal B scan images, according to echoes of A mode images, were obtained. Statistical analysis was carried out to compare the echobiometric readings among subjects ( P  <   0.05).
Results  The aqueous and vitreous humors of the goats, as well as the lens cortices and nuclei, appeared anechoic. The cornea, anterior and posterior lens capsule, sclera, and iris appeared hyperechoic and generated peaks on the A mode. Ocular measurements between the right and left eyes, as well as between male and female goats were not significantly different among subjects of the same age ( P  =   1.00). All dimensions evaluated increased significantly with age ( P  <   0.01).
Conclusions  The ultrasonographic appearances of goat eyes were very similar to those of other animal species. The cornea, anterior chamber, lens, vitreous chamber, and axial globe length increased with age in the Saanen breed of goats. Knowledge of the normal appearance and ocular dimensions of goat eyes facilitates the use of ultrasonography in the evaluation of ocular disease in Saanen goats.     

Relationships between daily, morning, evening and peak yield and persistency in Turkish Saanen goats

A matrix of persistency values is given instead of one value of persistency or persistency values based on succeeding test days. Overall, the persistency matrix of morning milk had higher values than the persistency matrix of evening milk. As the distance between the test days increased, the correlations dramatically decreased. The effects of morning milk yield b = 0.23 (P < 0.01) on standard deviation of morning and evening milk yield and on peak the milk yield was higher compared to the evening daily milk yield b = 0.03 (P = 0.05) and the total daily milk yield 0.10 (P < 0.01). Increased persistency means that the lactation curve may be flatter. Since the peak value of morning milk (1597 mL) was lower than evening milk (1799 mL), and morning milk was more persistent than evening milk, morning milk can be said to contribute more to the flatness of the lactation curve. Overall, the morning milk volume (938 mL) was larger than the evening milk volume (835 mL). A 3D plot of peak milk versus morning and evening milk yield indicated that increasing the evening milk yield increases the peak yield while the morning milk yield holds the peak value lower and the curve stable.     

Sulfatroxazole: pharmacokinetics, metabolism and urinary excretion in goats and pigs

The disposition of sulfatroxazole (STZ) has been studied in goats and pigs after intravenous administration of a single dose. The percentage of protein-binding decreased with increasing plasma concentration in both species. At 100 micrograms/ml about 85% was bound to plasma proteins in goats, while the corresponding value was only 55% in pigs. Two metabolites of STZ were isolated from urine and identified as N4-acetyl-STZ and 3-sulfanilamido-4-methyl-5-hydroxy-methyl-isoxazole (5'-OH-STZ). The goats excreted about 80% of the dose in urine. The majority (64%) was excreted as unchanged STZ, while N4-acetyl-STZ and 5'-OH-STZ made up 19% and 18%, respectively. The pigs excreted 95% of the dose in urine. Unchanged STZ amounted to 30% and N4-acetyl-STZ to 70% of the urinary excretion in pigs, while there were only traces of 5'-OH-STZ.     

Effect of nickel deficiency on biochemical variables in serum, liver, heart and kidneys of goats.

Nickel deficiency was induced in 2- to 4-year-old goats by feeding 0.1 mg Ni/kg dry matter with a semisynthetic diet. The control group consumed 5.0 mg Ni/kg d.m. Activity of several enzymes (SDH, LDH, HBDH, AST, ALT, ALD, CK, CHE) was determined in the serum, liver, heart and kidneys. Serum urea-N level was also measured and transmission electron microscopic (TEM) examinations were performed. Signs characteristic of nickel deficiency (retarded growth, increased mortality of dam and offspring, parakeratosis of the skin) appeared in the low-nickel group. The activity of SDH and ALD, as well as the level of urea-N was significantly lower in the serum of Ni-deficient animals than in the control. Ni-deficient animals also had significantly lower enzyme activities in the heart (SDH, HBDH, AST, ALT, ALD and CK), liver (SDH and CHE) and kidneys (HBDH and CK). Electron micrographs showed degeneration of cardiac and skeletal muscle in the Ni-deficient animals. Ni deficiency elicited changes primarily in the heart and these resulted in depressed activity of several enzymes.     

Neoplasms of the canine urinary bladder.

Evaluation of histologic data obtained from 90 breeds of dogs with 3,837 neoplasms collected over 10 years (1961-1971) revealed 21 cases of urinary bladder neoplasmia in 14 breeds of dogs. There was no breed predispostion. The mean age of dogs with urinary bladder neoplasia was 9.5 years; 6 were males, 13 were females, and 2 were spayed females.