Modelling the influence of site and weed competition on juvenile modulus of elasticity in Pinus radiata across broad environmental gradients

Data from a nationwide set of Pinus radiata D. Don plots established at a range of conventional stand densities were analysed at age 6 to (i) determine how environment and competition from weeds influence dynamic modulus of elasticity (E) of the lower stem base, (ii) develop a predictive multiple regression model of E for basal stemwood and (iii) identify significant direct and indirect environmental influences (through stem slenderness) on E using path analysis.Site had a highly significant (P < 0.001) influence on E, which exhibited a 3-fold range from 1.6 to 5.3 GPa, across 30 sites. When compared to the weed-free controls, weed competition had a significant (P < 0.0001) and substantial effect on E, increasing values by on average 16% (2.76 GPa vs. 2.38 GPa).The positive linear relationship between stem slenderness (determined as tree height/ground-line tree diameter) and E was by far the strongest relationship (R² = 0.71; P < 0.001) among the 20 variables that were significantly related to E. A multiple regression model that included stem slenderness, mean minimum air temperature in mid-autumn, T_min, as positive linear relationships and net nitrogen (N) mineralisation in a negative linear form accounted for 86% of the variance in E. A cross-validation indicated that this model was stable and unbiased, with the validation accounting for 82% of the variance in E. The final path analysis model included T_min, net N mineralisation, below canopy solar radiation and stem slenderness as significant (P < 0.05) direct influences on E. Below canopy radiation, maximum air temperature during mid-summer, soil total phosphorus and carbon:nitrogen ratio were indirectly associated with E through their significant (P < 0.05) direct relationship with stem slenderness.These results provide considerable insight into how environment regulates E of juvenile P. radiata. Low fertility sites that have warm air temperatures and either a high canopy leaf area index, or high levels of woody weed competition, are most likely to produce trees with high stem slenderness and high E. Conversely, sites that are cool over summer and autumn and high in fertility, with low levels of intra- or inter-specific competition for light are likely to produce trees with low stem slenderness and low E.     

Influence of initial planting spacing and genotype on microfibril angle,wood density,fibre properties and modulus of elasticity in Pinus radiata D. Don corewood

Pinus radiata D. Don trees from six clones, grown at initial spacings of 2500 stems ha⁻¹ and 833 stems ha⁻¹ were destructively harvested. For these trees wood properties were measured on radial slices sampled at a height of 1.4 m above the ground. Relative to wide spacing, close initial stand spacing significantly reduced microfibril angle (MFA) and ring width and significantly increased dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOE), fibre length, latewood percentage and cell wall thickness. Density and fibre width were not significantly different between spacing treatments. Examination of the influence of genetic population on wood properties indicated that genotype significantly influenced MFA, MOE and ring width. The key wood properties MFA, MOE and fibre length were regressed against tree diameter, height and stem slenderness. All three wood properties were most strongly correlated with stem slenderness. Multiple regression models developed for MFA, MOE and ring width accounted for respectively 62%, 81% and 58% of the variation in these variables. The following changes occurred in sampled properties with increasing ring number: MFA and ring width declined markedly; MOE and fibre length increased markedly; latewood percentage and cell wall thickness increased slightly; and density and fibre width did not show any radial trend.     

Influence of prior land use on wood quality of Pinus radiata in New South Wales,Australia

Wood quality data from 33 sites aged between 15 and 18 years old were analysed to determine the effect of prior land use (pasture, cleared grazing land or timber) on wood density, wood stiffness, fibre length and kraft pulp yield. Sampling sites covered 6 different forest areas within the estate. Prior land use (PLU) significantly affected wood stiffness, density and fibre length but not the kraft pulping traits. In contrast, differences were found between different forest areas for the kraft pulping traits plus fibre length but not for stiffness or density.     

Decomposition of woody debris in managed Pinus radiata plantations in New Zealand

Decay rates of stems, branches and roots were assessed in Pinus radiata (D. Don) plantation forests located throughout New Zealand. Stem and branch decay rates were obtained using (1) post-harvest material from two central North Island locations (Kaingaroa and Tarawera Forests) based on a 10-year chronosequence (in ground contact or suspended) and (2) post-thinning stems and attached branch material from five sites covering a range of climatic conditions across New Zealand (Woodhill, Puruki, Hokonui, Nemona and Selwyn) with up to 5 years of decay. Stem, stump and root decay rates were determined from two central North Island locations (Kinleith and Puruki) from thinnings with 0, 5, and 10 years of decay (Kinleith) and mature trees at 0 and 11 years of decay (Puruki). Stem and branch post-harvest material decayed faster when in contact with the ground than when elevated above the ground. The proportion of material elevated or in ground contact was not estimated in this study. P. radiata discs from young trees and post-harvest residue showed no significant diameter effect on decay rate and could be used confidently to predict whole stem decay rate. Discs from older trees covering a larger diameter range at Puruki showed a significant effect of diameter on decay rate. Decay rates of coarse roots at the two central North Island sites were faster than above-ground whole stem decay rates. Exponential models incorporating mean annual temperature for P. radiata stems in ground contact arising from thinning and harvest currently provide the best estimate of residue decay in New Zealand. There was no increase in carbon concentration with decay, suggesting that live stem values may be applied to all dead wood for determining the mass of carbon change with decomposition. Nitrogen concentrations increased with decay.     

Additive prediction of aboveground biomass for Pinus radiata (D. Don) plantations

A general and two country-specific systems of additive equations were developed to predict aboveground biomass of Pinus radiata plantations from stand variables that are routinely measured in inventory plots and predicted by conventional growth and yield models. The data for this work consisted of 319 plot-based biomass estimates that were derived from individual tree biomass equations developed in situ. These plot-based biomass estimates were compiled from studies reported in the forestry and ecological literature since 1960 and also from personal communications. They represent more than 60 sites worldwide with a majority in Australia and New Zealand. The systems of additive biomass equations developed from these data provide an alternative and addition to the current methods of estimating the aboveground biomass of P. radiata plantations. They also provide a direct linkage between forest inventory measures, outputs from conventional growth and yield models and biomass and carbon stock estimates at the same spatial scale. This direct linkage provides a new basis for scaling to a remote sensing image from which biomass and carbon stocks across the landscape can be mapped. Comparisons of prediction accuracies between this approach and other methods such as scaling up from individual tree biomass estimates and biomass expansion factors highlighted considerable methodological differences in the estimates of aboveground biomass and associated uncertainties over a range of stand age and conditions. These differences should be carefully evaluated before adopting a particular method to estimate aboveground biomass and carbon stocks of P. radiata plantations at a local, regional or national scale.     

Growth and nutrition of Pinus radiata in response to fertilizer applied after thinning and interaction with defoliation associated with Essigella californica

Infestations of Essigella californica following the installation of post-thinning fertilizer trials in Pinus radiata plantations provided an opportunity to examine the impact of repeated defoliation over a period of 8 years (1997–2005). Replicated treatments (n = 4) of nil fertilizer (control), N (300 kg ha⁻¹) as urea, P (80 kg ha⁻¹) and S (45 kg ha⁻¹) as superphosphates were applied immediately after thinning at three sites and this was followed by a second application of NPS fertilizers 6 years later with N applied at 300 kg ha⁻¹ as urea and ammonium sulphate and P at 80 or 120 kg ha⁻¹. Defoliation of untreated P. radiata gradually increased to 50% over a period of 8 years. Basal area growth was negatively correlated with average defoliation for two consecutive post-fertilizer periods of 6 and 2 years. Growth responses to fertilizer varied considerably between sites but the largest improvement in growth was due to NPS fertilizer, this increased basal area by 30–80%. Application of N fertilizer raised total N levels in foliage and increased defoliation with a commensurate loss in growth under conditions of deficiencies of S or P. Repeated infestations gradually increased the percentage of trees with severe defoliation (>80% loss of foliage) indicating that nutrient-deficient trees have a reduced capacity for foliage recovery between episodes of peak infestation. In contrast, treatment with N fertilizer in combination with S- and P-corrected deficiencies of these nutrients, raised levels of total N in foliage and reduced defoliation to approximately 20%. Basal area growth responses to NPS fertilizers reflected improved nutrition as well as reduced insect damage. The reduction in defoliation under conditions of balanced tree nutrition was most likely due to enhanced needle retention following correction of P deficiency as well as greater availability of nutrients enabling a more vigorous recovery of P. radiata after an episode of E. californica activity. Treatment with fertilizer therefore reduced the long-term impact of aphid damage and improved growth of P. radiata.     

黑松和马尾松苗受松材线虫侵染后部分化学物质的响应

为研究松材线虫侵染对寄主植物生理生化物质代谢的影响,以黑松和马尾松4 5年生苗为实验材料,测定了接种松材线虫对2种寄主植物的营养物质和次生代谢物质含量的变化及其规律。结果显示:接种松材线虫初期,黑松和马尾松的总糖含量均较高,随接种时间的延长,总糖含量呈不断下降趋势;黑松的可溶性糖含量一直降低并明显低于对照,马尾松的可溶性糖含量在侵染前期与对照相比变化不明显,而15 d后快速降低;黑松和马尾松的可溶性蛋白含量侵染前期均低于对照,后升高,再降低;黑松的单宁含量明显高于对照,马尾松的单宁含量接种第1天略低于对照,第3天后开始升高;黑松和马尾松的总酚含量均在侵染前期高于对照,而后降低。这些物质的变化趋势显示松材线虫侵染不同寄主植物的生理反应。     

Changes in total carbon and nutrients in soil profiles and accumulation in biomass after a 30-year rotation of Pinus radiata on podzolized sands: Impacts of intensive harvesting on soil resources

A large proportion of plantations of radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) in southern Australia have been established on podzolized coastal sands with low nutrient reserves. Inter-rotational management of the forest floor and harvesting residues has been shown to be critical to maintain the productive capacity of these soils. In 1974 a study was initiated at the end of the first rotation to evaluate the long-term sustainability of fast-growing plantations on these podzolized sands. Growth was measured at 5, 10 and 20 years and prior to clear-felling at age 30. Soil sampling at the end of the first rotation in 1974 was repeated in 2004 prior to clear-felling to determine changes in carbon and nutrients in profiles after 30 years. Forest floor and tree biomass were measured to determine sequestration of carbon and nutrients in mature radiata pine.     

松墨天牛对云南松的分解作用分析

为探索松墨天牛取食对林木的分解作用,本文通过对松墨天牛幼虫及成虫取食量的测定,寄主云南松韧皮组织及松墨天牛幼虫排泄物成分对比分析,并与资源利用相同的木材微生物分解能力进行对比,阐明了松墨天牛作为分解者的重要分解作用。研究表明,松墨天牛幼虫期(约为55 d)取食分解林木生物量平均为12.42 g(24.40 cm3),成虫期取食分解林木生物量平均为12.87 g(25.28 cm3);松墨天牛幼虫对糖类物质的利用度很高,具有较强的纤维分解利用能力,取食分解后总糖减少83.58%,粗纤维减少23.87%,1头松墨天牛幼虫期分解的林木粗纤维质量为1.93 g,分解利用率为0.008 g.d-1。松墨天牛对林木的分解证明,天牛作为一种重要的林木分解的先驱者,可以分解林木,更重要的是松墨天牛攻击亚健康林木,为微生物分解林木提供了容易入侵的途径,加速了亚健康林木的分解与循环,在森林生态系统物质分解与循环中具有重要的促进作用。     

黄土高原半干旱区油松人工林枯落物截留雨量模拟研究

为建立合适的枯落物截留雨量预估模型,利用2008-2011年定位观测数据,采用回归分析方法对黄土高原半干旱区油松人工林枯落物对降雨的截留与林外降雨量(P)、林内穿透雨量(TF)之间的关系进行建模研究;运用Bootstrap方法,对模型进行参数特征分析.结果表明:枯落物截留与林内外降雨量均可用非线性模型Ic=aPb进行回归模拟,回归方程分别为Ic=0.499P0.627和Ic=0.717TF0.513.该模型不仅具有较高的拟合精度,且拟合方程参数稳定性良好,经检验方程均达到显著性要求,可用于预估该区域油松人工林的枯落物截留量.     

Predicting sapstain and degrade in fallen trees following storm damage in a Pinus radiata forest

Storm damage in production forests constitutes a major source of economic loss world wide, yet the retrieval of salvageable timber remains problematic. In particular, an inability to anticipate when sapstain and degrade will appear hampers the planning of log recovery operations. A study was conducted to monitor the deterioration of fallen trees following two winter storms causing wind and snow damage in a Pinus radiata plantation forest in the upper South Island of New Zealand. Percentage sapstain, incidence of basidiomycete decay fungi, and frequency of bark beetle infestation increased, while percentage sapwood moisture content decreased, over a period of 1 year. These changes proceeded more rapidly in fallen trees that were severed at stump height, to simulate breakage, than in those that were left partially rooted. There was little beetle activity at the time of the storms, but Arhopalus ferus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), and Hylastes ater, Hylurgus ligniperda and Pachycotes peregrinus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), were collected in flight traps during the following spring and summer. The predominant fungal species associated with sapstain was Diplodia pinea, while Ophiostoma piceae and Grosmannia huntii were isolated near the end of the period. The main decay fungi obtained were Phlebiopsis gigantea, Stereum sanguinolentum, and Schizophyllum commune. A generalized linear mixed model was constructed to predict the development of sapstain in fallen trees for conditions prevailing during the study after a storm at the same time of year. According to the model, a 10 m long butt log of 22 cm mid length diameter will have minimal stain (<10% of the cross sectional area affected) when cut from severed stems up to 4 months after the storm; if taken from still-rooted trees this period will extend to 1 year. However, because of large between-tree variation, economically productive log recovery will also depend on the proportion of trees that lie below an acceptable sapstain threshold. Further research is needed to determine regional and seasonal influences on the development of sapstain in fallen trees.     

马尾松钙调素基因的克隆及响应松材线虫侵染的表达特征

松材线虫病是由松材线虫(Bursaphelenchus xylophilus)侵染引起的严重病害,引起重大的经济和生态损失。钙调素(CaM)是真核生物中Ca2+主要传导蛋白,本研究采用RT-PCR方法,首次从马尾松中克隆获得CaM,命名为pmCaM,并检测了其响应松材线虫侵染的表达特征。序列分析表明:pmCaM完整的开放阅读框核苷酸序列为450bp,编码149个氨基酸的蛋白质;该蛋白含有4个EF-hand结构域,具有钙调素的典型特征,与其它植物的CaM蛋白均有较高同源性。实时荧光定量PCR分析显示:接种松材线虫后30 180 min时间段,马尾松苗根、茎、叶器官中的pmCaM均下调表达,但不同器官间显著下调表达的时间点存在差异;同时,不同器官pmCaM表达量变化均存在特异的随时间发展的波动特征,其中发现,根茎pmCaM在松材线虫接种45 min时均处于表达量高峰。本研究结果显示pmCaM表达响应了松材线虫侵染,揭示pmCaM可能参与了调控松材线虫-马尾松互作早期的钙信号响应。     

马尾松谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶PmGPX6基因cDNA克隆及转化拟南芥耐旱性初步研究

[目的]克隆马尾松谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶基因,并对其进行功能研究。[方法]采用RACE技术克隆基因c DNA序列,实时荧光定量PCR检测基因在马尾松干旱胁迫下的表达模式,花序浸泡法转化拟南芥,并对转基因与野生型拟南芥的生长表型和根系生长进行分析。利用荧光显微镜技术对转基因拟南芥不定根进行GFP荧光检测。[结果]克隆到1个871 bp的GPX基因全长c DNA序列,命名为Pm GPX6。Pm GPX6包括513 bp的完整开放阅读框,编码170个氨基酸残基。Pm GPX6蛋白与油松Pt GPX蛋白同源性达95%。Pm GPX6在马尾松根中高表达,茎、叶中表达量低。在干旱胁迫下,Pm GPX6在根、茎、叶中的表达量均在第15天达到最大,随后出现下降趋势。过表达Pm GPX6与野生型拟南芥植株在正常水分条件下表型与根长差异不大,但在干旱胁迫下,转基因植株根系更长。转基因拟南芥根在蓝色光激发下能发出强烈的绿色荧光,表明Pm GPX6基因能高效表达。[结论]推测Pm GPX6可能参与马尾松干旱胁迫应答。     

马尾松人工林地力维护研究进展

针对地力衰退与维护这一林业研究热点,文中从林分生产力、土壤理化性质、土壤养分、土壤微生物、土壤酶活性、自毒作用6个方面阐述了马尾松人工林的地力现状。众多研究表明,马尾松人工林尚未出现地力衰退,其产生地力衰退的原因主要是不合理的营林措施。同时从轮作、混交林、发展林下植被、林地施肥、生态系统管理等方面介绍了马尾松人工林地力维护进展,并对马尾松人工林地力维护研究趋势进行了展望。     

有无枯落物覆盖对加勒比松林地表径流及其K流失的影响

为了解有无枯落物对K随地表径流损失的影响,研究比较了有无枯落物加勒比松林地表径流中的K流失的特点,结果表明:有、无枯落物加勒比松林的年地表径流量分别为12.6、51.8 mm,主要发生在夏季,对应的地表径流系数分别为0.60%、2.48%,表明前者能有效削弱地表径流。2种林分的降水量和地表径流量的关系可用二项式方程表示。有、无枯落物加勒比松林各月的地表径流K浓度分别为3.2~36.3、1.8~6.0 mg.kg-1,通过地表径流输出的K量分别为701、982 g.hm-2。2008年5、6月为有枯落物加勒比松林的K流失高峰,6月为无枯落物加勒比松林的K流失高峰。地表径流的K浓度和径流量之间存在对数关系,K的流失量主要由径流量决定。     

小陇山油松天然林结构特征

利用固定样地每木定位调查数据和相关分析统计软件,对小陇山林区油松天然林的结构特征进行了分析。结果表明:油松天然林树种组成丰富,群落中共出现18个树种,油松占绝对优势,但样地树种隔离程度较低,属于弱度混交。油松天然林的直径分布为多峰山状曲线,油松种群的直径分布近似于正态分布,可用3参数Weibull分布拟合;树高随胸径的增大而增加,胸径与树高的关系可运用幂函数进行拟合。林分中油松个体的胸径、树高和冠幅的大小分化差异明显,整体上表现为中庸状态;油松天然林林木分布格局为随机分布,油松种群分布格局也为随机分布。     

马尾松细根研究进展

根系是植物长期适应陆地条件而形成的一个重要的地下器官,在整个生态系统中扮演者重要的角色。细根作为根系系统中最重要部分,对森林生态系统碳平衡和养分循环具有重要作用。马尾松是我国速生特有种,集经济价值和生态价值为一体。文中综述了马尾松细根生物量、周转和寿命的研究进展,并对今后的研究提出展望,以期为我国树木根系生态学研究提供参考。     

水分胁迫下外生菌根对马尾松幼苗养分吸收的影响

利用接种褐环乳牛肝菌、鸡油菌、彩色豆马勃、土生空团菌的马尾松苗,在温室采用盆栽方法,研究水分胁迫下,不同菌根化苗对养分的吸收情况.结果表明:在水分胁迫下,外生菌根能显著提高马尾松幼苗对N、P、K的吸收.随胁迫加剧,菌根化苗N、P含量和磷酸酶活性均呈先增后降趋势,在中度胁迫时达最大,其中,接种褐环乳牛肝菌l的苗对N、P吸收效果最好,分别比对照增加56.65％和44.32％;接种彩色豆马勃和褐环乳牛肝菌1的马尾松苗的K含量随胁迫的加剧先增后降,在轻度胁迫时达最大,分别比对照增加221.99％和200.00％.N和K主要分布在叶中,而P在根、茎、叶中分布较均匀,菌根的形成有利于马尾松幼苗N、K的上行运输.在轻度和中度胁迫下,接种褐环乳牛肝菌1对提高马尾松苗N、P、K的吸收和含量效果最好,同时也促进了马毛松幼苗生长和抗旱能力的增强.     

不同径级云南松各部位生物量及其分布规律

利用标准木法测定了不同径级云南松人工林生物量及生物量在垂直方向上的分布规律。结果表明:云南松生物量随径级的增大而增大,5~7.5 cm径级云南松生物量为(6.642±1.129)×10³ g·株^-1;7.6~12.5 cm径级为(2.533±0.387)×10⁴ g·株^-1;12.6~17.5 cm径级为(5.897±1.331)×10⁴ g·株^-1;17.6~22.5 cm径级为(1.063±0.211)×10⁵ g·株^-1;≥22.6 cm径级为(2.208±0.409)×10⁵ g·株^-1。在不同径级组成中云南松各器官生物量的分配比例存在一定的变化:随着径级的增大,主干和根部生物量呈现先下降后上升的趋势,枝和叶生物量占总生物量的比例为先升高后降低,而树皮的比例则一直下降。主干生物量在0~2 m高度层最大,占总生物量的27.62%。6~8 m高度层枝、叶生物量最大,分别占各自总生物量的35.85%、38.34%。云南松根系生物量主要分布在0~30 cm土层深度内,占总根系生物量的65.49%。     

Regeneration of Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) and limber pine (Pinus flexilis) three decades after stand-replacing fires

Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) and limber pine (Pinus flexilis) are important high-elevation pines of the southern Rockies that are forecast to decline due to the recent spread of white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) into this region. Proactive management strategies to promote the evolution of rust resistance and maintain ecosystem function require an improved understanding of the role of disturbance on the population dynamics of both species and environmental conditions that favor seedling establishment. We examined patterns of bristlecone and limber pine regeneration across the perimeters of three, 29-year-old, high-severity burns in northern, central, and southern Colorado: Ouzel, Badger Mountain, and Maes Creek, respectively. Both species exhibited a very protracted regeneration response to these fires. Bristlecone pine regeneration was concentrated near burn edges and beneath surviving seed sources. This spatial pattern is consistent with limitations incurred by wind-dispersal, also borne out by the low occurrence of seedling clusters. Relative to unburned stands, the absolute abundance of bristlecone pine generally increased only on plots retaining some surviving trees. Limber pine regeneration pattern varied between sites: high in the burn interior at Ouzel, concentrated at burn edges at Badger, and mostly in unburned stands at Maes. Clark’s Nutcracker dispersal of limber pine in each study area was indicated by high seedling distance from possible seed sources and high frequencies of clustered stems. Except at Ouzel, the absolute abundance of limber pine decreased in burns. Across sites, establishment by both species was boosted by nearby nurse objects (rocks, fallen logs, and standing tree trunks), a relationship that extended out at least as far as the closest three such objects, usually found within 50 cm. Fire decreased the frequency of Pedicularis but increased Castilleja and Ribes species (alternate hosts of white pine blister rust), though only one species, R. cereum, was positively associated with either pine species. We conclude that regeneration of bristlecone and limber pine may benefit from natural disturbance or proactive management creating appropriately sized openings and microtopographic structure (e.g., abundant fallen logs); however, beneficial responses may require many decades to be achieved.