Ponderosa pine snag densities following multiple fires in the Gila Wilderness,New Mexico

Fires create and consume snags (standing dead trees), an important structural and ecological component of ponderosa pine forests. The effects of repeated fires on snag densities in ponderosa pine forests of the southwestern USA have not been studied. Line intercept sampling was used to estimate snag densities in areas of the Gila Wilderness that had burned one to three times under Wildland Fire Use for Resource Benefit (WFU), a fire management policy implemented since 1974 aimed at restoring natural fire regimes. Twenty randomly located transects were measured in areas burned since 1946; six in once-burned areas, six in twice-burned areas and eight in thrice-burned areas. The mean density ± standard errors of large (>47.5 cm dbh) snags for areas that burned once, twice and thrice was 7.0 ± 2.7, 4.4 ± 1.1 and 4.1 ± 1.3 snags/ha, respectively. Differences in snag densities between once- and multiple-burned areas were significant (F-test; p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in density of large snags between twice- and thrice-burned areas. Proportions of type 1 snags (recently created) were higher in once- and twice-burned areas than in areas that burned three times, likely reflecting high tree mortality and snag recruitment resulting from an initial entry fire. Type 3 snags (charred by previous fire) were more abundant in areas that burned multiple times. The lack of differences in snag densities between areas that burned two and three times suggests that repeated fires leave many snags standing. The increasing proportion of type 3 snags with repeated fires supports this conclusion.     

Snag longevity of Douglas-fir,western hemlock,and western redcedar from permanent sample plots in coastal British Columbia

Snags are important both as structural components and as animal habitat in forests, but abundance is often low and their dynamics poorly understood in young, managed stands. Using a large data set of 19,622 snags from permanent plots in second-growth forests of coastal British Columbia, we modeled snag longevity (time from tree mortality to snag fall) for three species: Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), and western redcedar (Thuja plicata). Snag longevity was strongly related to species and snag size (diameter): the median snag longevity was 16 years for Douglas-fir, 11 years for hemlock and 5 years for redcedar. Western redcedar was predominantly in the subcanopy and its rapid fall rate was related to the small size of its snags. In addition to diameter, other attributes (height to diameter ratio, height, and live crown ratio before death) contributed significantly to models for one or two of the species. However, site level variables did not contribute significantly to any of the models. Snags greater than 50 cm diameter, especially Douglas-fir snags, have the potential for persistence well beyond 20 years in these second-growth forests, and could be important for wildlife.     

Implications of fires on carbon budgets in Andean cloud montane forest: The importance of peat soils and tree resprouting

Fire in tropical montane cloud forests (TMCFs) is not as rare as once believed. Andean TMCFs sit immediately below highly flammable, high-altitude grasslands (Puna/Páramo) that suffer from recurrent anthropogenic fire. This treeline is a zone of climatic tension where substantial future warming is likely to force upward tree migrations, while increased fire presence and fire impacts are likely to force it downwards. TMCFs contain large carbon stocks in their peat soils and their loss through fire is a currently unaccounted for regional source of CO₂. This study, conducted in the southern Peruvian Andes (>2800 m), documents differences in live tree biomass, fine root biomass, fallen and standing dead wood, and soil organic carbon in 4 paired-sample plots (burned versus control) following the severe ground fires that occurred during the 2005 Andean drought. Peat soils contributed the most to biomass burning emissions, with lower values corresponding to an 89% mean stock difference compared to the controls (mean ± SE) (54.1 ± 22.3 vs. 5.8 ± 5.3 MgC ha⁻¹). Contrastingly, carbon stocks from live standing trees differed by a non-significant 37% lower value in the burned plots compared to the controls, largely compensated by vigorous resprouting (45.5 ± 17.4 vs. 69.2 ± 13.4 MgC ha⁻¹). Both standing dead trees and fallen dead wood were significantly higher in the burned plots with a three-fold difference from the controls: dead Trees 45.2 ± 9.4 vs. 16.4 ± 4.4 MgC ha⁻¹, and ca. a 2 fold difference for the fallen dead wood: 11.2 ± 5 vs. 6.7 ± 3.2 MgC ha⁻¹ for the burned plots versus their controls. A preliminary estimate of the regional contribution of biomass burning emissions from Andean TMCFs for the period 2000-2008, resulted in mean carbon emission rates of 1.3 TgC yr⁻¹ (max-min: 1.8-0.8 TgC yr⁻¹). This value is in the same order of magnitude than South American annual fire emissions (300 TgC yr⁻¹) suggesting the need for further research on Andean forest fires. On-going projects on the region are working on the promotion of landowner participation in TMCFs conservation through REDD+ mechanism. The heart of the proposed initiative is reforestation of degraded lands with green fire breaks enriched with economically valuable Andean plant species. The cultivation of these species may contribute to reduce deforestation pressure on the Amazonian cloud forest by providing an alternative income to local communities, at the same time that they prevent the spread of fire into Manu National Park and adjacent community-held forests, protecting forest and reducing CO₂ emissions.     

Size, species, and fire behavior predict tree and liana mortality from experimental burns in the Brazilian Amazon

Anthropogenic understory fires have affected large areas of tropical forest in recent decades, particularly during severe droughts. Yet, the mechanisms that control fire-induced mortality of tropical trees and lianas remain ambiguous due to the challenges associated with documenting mortality given variation in fire behavior and forest heterogeneity. In a seasonally dry Amazon forest, we conducted a burn experiment to quantify how increasing understory fires alter patterns of stem mortality. From 2004 to 2007, tree and liana mortality was measured in adjacent 50-ha plots that were intact (B0 - control), burned once (B1), and burned annually for 3 years (B3). After 3 years, cumulative tree and liana mortality (≥1 cm dbh) in the B1 (5.8% yr⁻¹) and B3 (7.0% yr⁻¹) plots significantly exceeded mortality in the control (3.2% yr⁻¹). However, these fire-induced mortality rates are substantially lower than those reported from more humid Amazonian forests. Small stems were highly vulnerable to fire-induced death, contrasting with drought-induced mortality (measured in other studies) that increases with tree size. For example, one low-intensity burn killed >50% of stems <10 cm within a year. Independent of stem size, species-specific mortality rates varied substantially from 0% to 17% yr⁻¹ in the control, 0% to 26% yr⁻¹ in B1, and 1% to 23% yr⁻¹ in B3, with several species displaying high variation in their vulnerability to fire-induced mortality. Protium guianense (Burseraceae) exhibited the highest fire-induced mortality rates in B1 and B3, which were 10- and 9-fold greater than the baseline rate. In contrast, Aspidosperma excelsum (Apocynaceae), appeared relatively unaffected by fire (0.3% to 1.0% mortality yr⁻¹ across plots), which may be explained by fenestration that protects the inner concave trunk portions from fire. For stems ≥10 cm, both char height (approximating fire intensity) and number of successive burns were significant predictors of fire-induced mortality, whereas only the number of consecutive annual burns was a strong predictor for stems <10 cm. Three years after the initial burn, 62 ± 26 Mg ha⁻¹ (s.e.) of live biomass, predominantly stems <30 cm, was transferred to the dead biomass pool, compared with 8 ± 3 Mg ha⁻¹ in the control. This biomass loss from fire represents ∼30% of this forest's aboveground live biomass (192 (±3) Mg ha⁻¹; >1 cm DBH). Although forest transition to savanna has been predicted based on future climate scenarios, our results indicate that wildfires from agricultural expansion pose a more immediate threat to the current carbon stocks in Amazonian forests.     

Twentieth-century decline of large-diameter trees in Yosemite National Park,California, USA

Studies of forest change in western North America often focus on increased densities of small-diameter trees rather than on changes in the large tree component. Large trees generally have lower rates of mortality than small trees and are more resilient to climate change, but these assumptions have rarely been examined in long-term studies. We combined data from 655 historical (1932–1936) and 210 modern (1988–1999) vegetation plots to examine changes in density of large-diameter trees in Yosemite National Park (3027 km²). We tested the assumption of stability for large-diameter trees, as both individual species and communities of large-diameter trees. Between the 1930s and 1990s, large-diameter tree density in Yosemite declined 24%. Although the decrease was apparent in all forest types, declines were greatest in subalpine and upper montane forests (57.0% of park area), and least in lower montane forests (15.3% of park area). Large-diameter tree densities of 11 species declined while only 3 species increased. Four general patterns emerged: (1) Pinus albicaulis, Quercus chrysolepis, and Quercus kelloggii had increases in density of large-diameter trees occur throughout their ranges; (2) Pinus jeffreyi, Pinus lambertiana, and Pinus ponderosa, had disproportionately larger decreases in large-diameter tree densities in lower-elevation portions of their ranges; (3) Abies concolor and Pinus contorta, had approximately uniform decreases in large-diameter trees throughout their elevational ranges; and (4) Abies magnifica, Calocedrus decurrens, Juniperus occidentalis, Pinus monticola, Pseudotsuga menziesii, and Tsuga mertensiana displayed little or no change in large-diameter tree densities. In Pinus ponderosa–Calocedrus decurrens forests, modern large-diameter tree densities were equivalent whether or not plots had burned since 1936. However, in unburned plots, the large-diameter trees were predominantly A. concolor, C. decurrens, and Q. chrysolepis, whereas P. ponderosa dominated the large-diameter component of burned plots. Densities of large-diameter P. ponderosa were 8.1 trees ha⁻¹ in plots that had experienced fire, but only 0.5 trees ha⁻¹ in plots that remained unburned.     

Snag dynamics in post-harvest landscapes of western Newfoundland balsam fir-dominated boreal forests

We examined changes in standing dead tree (snag) density and biomass with time following harvest across a chronosequence of balsam fir (Abies balsamea) dominated boreal forests in western Newfoundland, Canada. Current snag management practices in Newfoundland recommend a minimum of 10 snags/ha on the post-harvest landscape. Snags declined significantly in the first two decades of the chronosequence. The rapid rate of decline in snag density which occurred immediately post harvest was likely attributable to windfall and domestic harvest for firewood. A second rapid rate of snag density decline occurred 10–15 years post harvest which potentially reflected the average lifespan of snags in western Newfoundland. Average snag densities approximated the minimum management goal during the period from 15 to 60 years since harvest (YSH). However, 53–60% of sites sampled in the 15–60 YSH period contained <10 snags/ha. Snag densities then increased with forest age, again reaching high levels 81–100 YSH which were comparable to the density at the beginning of the chronosequence. Achieving the goal of 10 snags/ha on all post-harvest sites in western Newfoundland, especially between 15 and 60 YSH, will require changes to current forest management practices.     

Forest thinning and subsequent bark beetle-caused mortality in Northeastern California

The Warner Mountains of northeastern California on the Modoc National Forest experienced a high incidence of tree mortality (2001–2007) that was associated with drought and bark beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae) attack. Various silvicultural thinning treatments were implemented prior to this period of tree mortality to reduce stand density and increase residual tree growth and vigor. Our study: (1) compared bark beetle-caused conifer mortality in forested areas thinned from 1985 to 1998 to similar, non-thinned areas and (2) identified site, stand and individual tree characteristics associated with conifer mortality. We sampled ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) and Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. and Balf.) trees in pre-commercially thinned and non-thinned plantations and ponderosa pine and white fir (Abies concolor var lowiana Gordon) in mixed conifer forests that were commercially thinned, salvage-thinned, and non-thinned. Clusters of five plots (1/50th ha) and four transects (20.1 × 100.6 m) were sampled to estimate stand, site and tree mortality characteristics. A total of 20 pre-commercially thinned and 13 non-thinned plantation plot clusters as well as 20 commercially thinned, 20 salvage-thinned and 20 non-thinned mixed conifer plot clusters were established. Plantation and mixed conifer data were analyzed separately. In ponderosa pine plantations, mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) (MPB) caused greater density of mortality (trees ha⁻¹ killed) in non-thinned (median 16.1 trees ha⁻¹) compared to the pre-commercially thinned (1.2 trees ha⁻¹) stands. Percent mortality (trees ha⁻¹ killed/trees ha⁻¹ host available) was less in the pre-commercially thinned (median 0.5%) compared to the non-thinned (5.0%) plantation stands. In mixed conifer areas, fir engraver beetles (Scolytus ventralis LeConte) (FEN) caused greater density of white fir mortality in non-thinned (least square mean 44.5 trees ha⁻¹) compared to the commercially thinned (23.8 trees ha⁻¹) and salvage-thinned stands (16.4 trees ha⁻¹). Percent mortality did not differ between commercially thinned (least square mean 12.6%), salvage-thinned (11.0%), and non-thinned (13.1%) mixed conifer stands. Thus, FEN-caused mortality occurred in direct proportion to the density of available white fir. In plantations, density of MPB-caused mortality was associated with treatment and tree density of all species. In mixed conifer areas, density of FEN-caused mortality had a positive association with white fir density and a curvilinear association with elevation.     

Avian foraging and nesting use of created snags in intensively-managed forests of western Oregon,USA

Snags are critical structural features for managing biological diversity in forests of the Pacific Northwest, USA. However, commercial forests in this region often contain reduced numbers of snags compared to unmanaged forests and managers require effective methods to augment snag numbers in harvest units. Therefore, we created snags by topping live trees with a mechanical harvester and studied foraging and nesting use by cavity-nesting birds of these snags in clearcuts in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga mensezii) forests along the west slope of the Cascade Mountain Range and east slope of the Coast Range in Oregon, USA. We used a completely randomized design to assign 6 different treatments (single or scattered distribution by 3 different densities) to 31 different harvest units. We created 1111 snags from February 1997 through April 1999 and monitored them from 2–5 years after harvest (1999–2002). Fraction of created snags with nest cavities in harvest units was generally low across all treatments and years of the study, although some individual stands demonstrated increased nesting use with snag age. While the highest fractions of snags with nest cavities were found in units with low density and scattered snags, the mean fraction of snags used for nesting did not differ among treatments. Treatment type, distribution of snags (i.e., scattered or clumped), and associated interactions did not influence fraction of snags used for foraging. However, fraction of created snags used for foraging in all harvest units increased with snag age. Fraction of snags used for foraging was greatest in the low density treatments. While this technique provides managers with a relatively economical option for creating snags, mechanical harvesters cannot be used to create tall, large snags upon which several cavity-dependent species rely and provides only a partial solution to a critical forest management issue.     

Forest dynamics after selective timber harvesting in Papua New Guinea

Forest dynamics after timber harvesting is a major issue for tropical forest managers and communities. Timber harvesting provides income to communities and governments and resources to industry but it has also been identified as a potential contributor to deforestation and degradation of tropical forests. In Papua New Guinea (PNG) harvesting is primarily occurring in accessible primary forests however, the fate of these forests under current harvesting practices is poorly understood.In this study we investigated the impacts of selective harvesting on stand structure, growth and dynamics, recovery and degradation, and species diversity. We also assessed the impacts of forest fire after the 1997-98 El Nino on basal area (BA) growth and mortality rates of natural tropical forests in PNG. For this study we used data from 118 (105 in selectively harvested and 13 in un-harvested forest), one-hectare permanent sample plots distributed across the country and measured for over 15 years by the PNG Forest Research Institute (PNGFRI). We analysed data from 84 of these plots in harvested forest to examine temporal trends in stand condition following harvesting. Mortality rates were investigated in 10 of the 21 plots in harvested forest that were burned during the 1997-98 El Nino drought with sufficient data for analyses. We tested a model developed in Queensland tropical forests to determine whether or not a critical threshold residual BA existed for the recovery of harvested tropical forests in PNG. Results from a logarithmic regression analysis of the relationship between starting BA (BA at first census) and stand BA increment after selective harvesting showed a positive increase in BA growth (r² = 0.74, p < 0.05). However, there was no critical threshold in residual BA that determined whether a harvested forest was likely to degrade or recover BA growth after harvesting. Our analyses suggested that the response to harvesting was variable, with the majority of un-burned plots (75%) showing an increase in BA and remainder a decrease. Average BA of selectively-harvested tropical forests was about 17 m² ha⁻¹ ± 4.17 (SD). Average annual increment in BA across the 84 un-burned plots was 0.17 m² ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ ± 0.62 (SD). Thus these forests generally show capacity to recover after selective harvesting even when the residual BA is low. A proportion of the BA increment is made up of non-commercial pioneer species that originate in significant gaps after harvesting. On burned plots, BA is affected by high mortality rates. The fate of these forests will depend on the degree of future harvesting, potential conversion to agriculture and the impact of fire and other disturbances.     

Long term accumulation of nitrogen in soils of dry mixed eucalypt forest in the absence of fire

In the Eden area in NSW, Australia, low fertility granitic surface soils were sampled from 156 sites and analysed for pH, organic C, total N, total P, available P, exchangeable bases and exchangeable Al. Fifty eight of these sites were also sampled to a depth of 40 cm. Time since fire ranged from 1 to 39 years and was used in the analysis as a surrogate for fire frequency. No information was available on fire intensity. No significant relationships were found between time since fire and P or base cations. However, the quantities of organic matter and total N (kg ha⁻¹), and the C/N ratio were significantly related to both time since fire alone and to the combination of time since fire and soil total P. Based on these relationships, it was estimated that there were average net increases of between 11 and 21 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in surface soil, the actual quantity depending on the level of soil total P. There was little change in N in the initial 10 years after fire and there was a peak in N accumulation about 24 years after fire. The C/N ratio and surface soil pH decreased with time since fire. Accumulation of N and reductions in pH and C/N ratio were studied further in a small scale paired plot analysis. The repeatedly burnt plots had lower levels of both litter and understorey and the overstorey trees generally had healthier crowns than in the unburnt plots. The differences between the repeatedly burnt and the unburnt plots matched the models developed from the general survey. There were no significant changes in the C/N ratio, but the unburnt sites had higher levels of extractable mineral N and the relationships between the mineral N and the C/N ratio for burnt and unburnt sites were statistically significant. The quantities of extractable mineral N in the unburnt soils (2.3 kg N ha⁻¹) were about twice the levels in the burnt soils (1.2 kg N ha⁻¹). The pH of the surface soil (4.4 in 1:1 water) in the regularly burnt area was higher than in the unburnt area (pH 4.1) and the exchangeable aluminium also differed (0.62 c mol⁻¹ in the burnt area and 1.3 c mol⁻¹ in the unburnt). The combined data indicate that changes occur in forest soils when there is a long period of exclusion of fire. It is suggested that these changes generally lead to secondary changes, such as in pH and availability of other elements such as aluminium. The study highlights a number of issues including the rates of inputs of N to the system and the question of N saturation and its long term interaction with plant species. It is hypothesised that reduced burning leads to increased N availability and other soil changes which negatively impact on tree health.     

Above-ground biomass dynamics after reduced-impact logging in the Eastern Amazon

Changes in above-ground biomass (AGB) of 17 1 ha logged plots of terra firme rain forest in the eastern Amazon (Brazil, Paragominas) were monitored for four years (2004–2008) after reduced-impact logging. Over the same time period, we also monitored two 0.5 ha plots in adjacent unlogged forest. While AGB in the control plots changed little over the observation period (increased on average 1.4 Mg ha⁻¹), logging resulted in immediate reductions in ABG that averaged 94.5 Mg ha⁻¹ (±42.0), which represented 23% of the 410 Mg ha⁻¹ (±64.9) present just prior to harvesting. Felled trees (dbh > 55 cm) accounted for 73% (±15) of these immediate losses but only 18.9 Mg ha⁻¹ (±8.1) of biomass was removed in the extracted logs. During the first year after logging, the annual AGB balance (annual AGB gain by recruitment and growth − annual AGB loss by mortality) remained negative (−31.1 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹; ±16.7), mainly due to continued high mortality rates of damaged trees. During the following three years (2005–2008), average net AGB accumulation in the logged plots was 2.6 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ (±4.6). Post-logging biomass recovery was mostly through growth (4.3 ± 1.5 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ for 2004–2005 and 6.8 ± 0.9 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ for 2005–2008), particularly of large trees. In contrast, tree recruitment contributed little to the observed increases in AGB (1.1 ± 0.6 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ for 2004–2005 and 3.1 ± 1.3 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ for 2005–2008). Plots with the lowest residual basal area after logging generally continued to lose more large trees (dbh ≥70 cm), and consequently showed the greatest AGB losses and the slowest overall AGB gains. If 100% AGB recovery is desired and the 30-year minimum cutting cycle defined by Brazilian law is adhered to, current logging intensities (6 trees ha⁻¹) need to be reduced by 40–50%. Such a reduction in logging intensity will reduce financial incomes to loggers, but might be compensated for by the payment of environmental services through the proposed REDD (reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) mechanism of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.     

The relationship between cavity-nesting birds and snags on clearcuts in western Oregon

Relationships between cavity-nesting birds (CNB) and density and characteristics of snags were investigated on 13 clearcuts in central coastal Oregon. Species richness and density of CNB were positively (P<0.05) related to snag density and were still increasing at the maximum snag density evaluated. Cavity-nesting birds selected (P<0.05) snags taller than 6.4 m and greater than 78–102 cm in diameter, and avoided (P<0.05) snags less than 28 cm in diameter. Snags of intermediate decay stages were used for nesting more (P<0.05) than snags of early and advanced stages of decay. Cavity-nesting birds selected snags with more (P<0.05) bark cover (greater than 11%) than the average cover found on available snags. Individual CNB species exhibited significantly different (P<0.05) selections for snag height, diameter, hardness and bark cover. To optimize density and richness of CNB, forest managers should provide ≥ 14 snags ha⁻¹ between 28 and 128 cm diameter at breast height (dbh), between 6.4 and 25 m tall, with at least 10% bark cover, and with a majority in hardness stages 3 and 4.     

The Brazil Eucalyptus Potential Productivity Project: Influence of water,nutrients and stand uniformity on wood production

We examined the potential growth of clonal Eucalyptus plantations at eight locations across a 1000+ km gradient in Brazil by manipulating the supplies of nutrients and water, and altering the uniformity of tree sizes within plots. With no fertilization or irrigation, mean annual increments of stem wood were about 28% lower (16.2 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, about 33 m³ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) than yields achieved with current operational rates of fertilization (22.6 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, about 46 m³ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Fertilization beyond current operational rates did not increase growth, whereas irrigation raised growth by about 30% (to 30.6 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, about 62 m³ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). The potential biological productivity (current annual increment) of the plantations was about one-third greater than these values, if based only on the period after achieving full canopies. The biological potential productivity was even greater if based only on the full-canopy period during the wet season, indicating that the maximum biological productivity across the sites (with irrigation, during the wet season) would be about 42 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (83 m³ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Stands with uniform structure (trees in plots planted in a single day) showed 13% greater growth than stands with higher heterogeneity of tree sizes (owing to a staggered planting time of up to 80 days). Higher water supply increased growth and also delayed by about 1 year the point where current annual increment and mean annual increment intersected, indicating opportunities for lengthening rotations for more productive treatments as well as the influence of year-to-year climate variations on optimal rotations periods. The growth response to treatments after canopy closure (mid-rotation) related well with full-rotation responses, offering an early opportunity for estimating whole-rotation yields. These results underscore the importance of resource supply, the efficiency of resource use, and stand uniformity in setting the bounds for productivity, and provide a baseline for evaluating the productivity achieved in operational plantations. The BEPP Project showed that water supply is the key resource determining levels of plantation productivity in Brazil. Future collaboration between scientists working on silviculture and genetics should lead to new insights on the mechanisms connecting water and growth, leading to improved matching of sites, clones, and silviculture.     

Fungal community succession following wildfire in a Mediterranean vegetation type dominated by Pinus pinaster in Northwest Spain

This study examined the succession of fungal communities following fire in a Mediterranean ecosystem dominated by Pinus pinaster Ait. in northwestern Spain. A large wildfire occurred in August 2002. During the autumn seasons from 2003 to 2006, fruiting bodies were collected and identified, production in burned (early stage) and unburned (late stage) areas was measured. For statistical analysis, data were grouped into the following four categories: saprotrophic, mycorrhizal; edible and inedible. A total of 115 fungal taxa were collected during the four sampling periods (85 in the late and 60 in the early stage). The number of mycorrhizal species increased from early to late succession and there were shifts in community composition. After fire, pyrophytic species such as Pholiota carbonaria, Peziza violacea, Rhizopogon luteolus and Rhizopogon sp. appeared. Fire strongly affected the production of fungal species in the studied area. Thus, yields in the early stage treatment were significantly lower than those observed in the late stage. Total fungal fresh weight decreased from 209.95 kg fw ha⁻¹ in the late stage to 162.45 kg fw ha⁻¹in the early stage when richness and production of mycorrhizal species and production of edible fungi were significantly lower. Fresh weight for saprotrophic and inedible species was higher than for mycorrhizal fungi in the early stage treatment. The results obtained can be useful to forest managers for optimization of management and harvesting of these increasingly appreciated non-timber resources.     

High-severity wildfire effects on carbon stocks and emissions in fuels treated and untreated forest

Forests contain the world's largest terrestrial carbon stocks, but in seasonally dry environments stock stability can be compromised if burned by wildfire, emitting carbon back to the atmosphere. Treatments to reduce wildfire severity can reduce emissions, but with an immediate cost of reducing carbon stocks. In this study we examine the tradeoffs in carbon stock reduction and wildfire emissions in 19 fuels-treated and -untreated forests burned in twelve wildfires. The fuels treatment, a commonly used thinning ‘from below’ and removal of activity fuels, removed an average of 50.3 Mg C ha⁻¹ or 34% of live tree carbon stocks. Wildfire emissions averaged 29.7 and 67.8 Mg C ha⁻¹ in fuels treated and untreated forests, respectively. The total carbon (fuels treatment plus wildfire emission) removed from treated sites was 119% of the carbon emitted from the untreated/burned sites. However, with only 3% tree survival following wildfire, untreated forests averaged only 7.8 Mg C ha⁻¹ in live trees with an average quadratic mean tree diameter of 21 cm. In contrast, treated forest averaged 100.5 Mg C ha⁻¹ with a live tree quadratic mean diameter of 44 cm. In untreated forests 70% of the remaining total ecosystem carbon shifted to decomposing stocks after the wildfire, compared to 19% in the fuels-treated forest. In wildfire burned forest, fuels treatments have a higher immediate carbon ‘cost’, but in the long-term may benefit from lower decomposition emissions and higher carbon storage.     

Carbon and nitrogen cycling immediately following bark beetle outbreaks in southwestern ponderosa pine forests

Bark beetle infestation is a well-known cause of historical low-level disturbance in southwestern ponderosa pine forests, but recent fire exclusion and increased tree densities have enabled large-scale bark beetle outbreaks with unknown consequences for ecosystem function. Uninfested and beetle-infested plots (n = 10 pairs of plots on two aspects) of ponderosa pine were compared over one growing season in the Sierra Ancha Experimental Forest, AZ to determine whether infestation was correlated with differences in carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) pools and fluxes in aboveground biomass and soils. Infested plots had at least 80% of the overstory ponderosa pine trees attacked by bark beetles within 2 years of our measurements. Both uninfested and infested plots stored ∼9 kg C m⁻² in aboveground tree biomass, but infested plots held 60% of this aboveground tree biomass in dead trees, compared to 5% in uninfested plots. We hypothesized that decreased belowground C allocation following beetle-induced tree mortality would alter soil respiration rates, but this hypothesis was not supported; throughout the growing season, soil respiration in infested plots was similar to uninfested plots. In contrast, several results supported the hypothesis that premature needlefall from infested trees provided a pulse of low C:N needlefall that altered soil N cycling. The C:N mass ratio of pine needlefall in infested plots (∼45) was lower than uninfested plots (∼95) throughout the growing season. Mineral soils from infested plots had greater laboratory net nitrification rates and field resin bag ammonium accumulation than uninfested plots. As bark beetle outbreaks become increasingly prevalent in western landscapes, longer-term biogeochemical studies on interactions with other disturbances (e.g. fire, harvesting, etc.) will be required to predict changes in ecosystem structure and function.     

Annual allowable cut for merchantable woody species in a community managed forest in western Kenya

Changes in stand density, basal area, off-take and annual increment were determined from 18 permanent sample plots established in 1997 in Got Ramogi Forest in western Kenya. The plots were assessed in 2003 and 2008. A total of 824 stems ?1.5 m in height were recorded from 43 woody species. Key merchantable woody species comprised 20% of the woody species and 67% of the overall stem density. There was a significant reduction in the overall stand density and in the stem density of key merchantable woody species, but not among other woody species between 1997 and 2008. The basal area decreased significantly among key merchantable woody species, but not for the overall forest. The basal area decreased from 22.6 to 9.7 m² ha⁻¹ for key merchantable woody species. The stand volume of key merchantable woody species decreased from 156 m³ ha⁻¹ in 1997 to 61.7 m³ ha⁻¹ in 2008. The mean annual off-take declined from 10.3 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ between 1997 and 2003 to 9.1 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ between 2003 and 2008, while the mean annual increment increased from 2.9 to 3.3 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. It was predicted that forest recovery would surpass the 1997 stand volume of 156 m³ ha⁻¹ if off-take levels between 10% and 90% of the mean annual increment were adopted. We settled on an annual allowable cut of 80% of the mean annual increment as a compromise between consumptive and conservation interests. We identified over-harvesting as the main cause of the reduction in stem density among key merchantable woody species. A management plan with compartment registers indicating the diversity, abundance and distribution of each woody species was recommended to guide their utilization and monitor their population dynamics.     

Carbon sequestration and biodiversity of re-growing miombo woodlands in Mozambique

Land management in tropical woodlands is being used to sequester carbon (C), alleviate poverty and protect biodiversity, among other benefits. Our objective was to determine how slash-and-burn agriculture affected vegetation and soil C stocks and biodiversity on an area of miombo woodland in Mozambique, and how C stocks and biodiversity responded once agriculture was abandoned. We sampled twenty-eight 0.125 ha plots that had previously been cleared for subsistence agriculture and had been left to re-grow for 2 to ∼25 years, and fourteen 0.25 ha plots of protected woodlands, recording stem diameter distributions and species, collecting wood for density determination, and soil from 0 to 0.3 m for determination of %C and bulk density. Clearance for agriculture reduced stem wood C stocks by 19.0 t C ha⁻¹. There were significant relationships between period of re-growth and basal area, stem numbers and stem biomass. During re-growth, wood C stocks accumulated at 0.7 t C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. There was no significant difference in stem C stocks on woodlands and on abandoned farmland 20–30 years old. Soil C stocks in the top 0.3 m on abandoned land had a narrower range (21–74 t C ha⁻¹) than stocks in woodland soils (18–140 t C ha⁻¹). There was no discernible increase in soil C stocks with period of re-growth, suggesting that the rate of accumulation of organic matter in these soils was very slow. The re-growing plots did not contain the defining miombo species, and total stem numbers were significantly greater than in woodland plots, but species richness and diversity were similar in older abandonments and miombo woodlands. Wood C stocks on abandoned farmland were capable of recovery within 2–3 decades, but soil C stocks did not change on this time-scale. Woodland soils were capable of storing >100 t C ha⁻¹, whereas no soil on a re-growing area exceeded 74 t C ha⁻¹, so there is a potential for C sequestration in soils on abandoned farmland. Management should focus on identifying C-rich soils, conserving remaining woodlands to protect soil C and preserve defining miombo species, and on investigating whether fire control on recovering woodland can stimulate accumulation of soil C and greater tree biomass, and restore defining miombo species.     

Nest-site selection by cavity-nesting birds in relation to postfire salvage logging

Large wildfire events in coniferous forests of the western United States are often followed by postfire timber harvest. The long-term impacts of postfire timber harvest on fire-associated cavity-nesting bird species are not well documented. We studied nest-site selection by cavity-nesting birds over a 10-year period (1994–2003), representing 1–11 years after fire, on two burns created by mixed severity wildfires in western Idaho, USA. One burn was partially salvaged logged (the Foothills burn), the other was primarily unlogged (the Star Gulch burn). We monitored 1367 nests of six species (Lewis’s Woodpecker Melanerpes lewis, Hairy Woodpecker Picoides villosus, Black-backed Woodpecker P. arcticus, Northern Flicker Colaptes auratus, Western Bluebird Sialia mexicana, and Mountain Bluebird S. currucoides). Habitat data at nest and non-nest random locations were characterized at fine (field collected) and coarse (remotely sensed) spatial scales. Nest-site selection for most species was consistently associated with higher snag densities and larger snag diameters, whereas wildfire location (Foothills versus Star Gulch) was secondarily important. All woodpecker species used nest sites with larger diameter snags that were surrounded by higher densities of snags than at non-nest locations. Nests of Hairy Woodpecker and Mountain Bluebird were primarily associated with the unlogged wildfire, whereas nests of Lewis’s Woodpecker and Western Bluebird were associated with the partially logged burn in the early years after fire. Nests of wood-probing species (Hairy and Black-backed Woodpeckers) were also located in larger forest patch areas than patches measured at non-nest locations. Our results confirm previous findings that maintaining clumps of large snags in postfire landscapes is necessary for maintaining breeding habitat of cavity-nesting birds. Additionally, appropriately managed salvage logging can create habitat for some species of cavity-nesting birds that prefer more open environments. Our findings can be used by land mangers to develop design criteria for postfire salvage logging that will reserve breeding habitat for cavity-nesting birds.     

Nitrogen leaching in response to increased nitrogen inputs in subtropical monsoon forests in southern China

Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) (as ammonium nitrate) was applied monthly onto the forest floor of one old-growth forest (>400 years old, at levels of 50, 100 and 150 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and two young forests (both about 70 years old, at levels of 50 and 100 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) over 3 years (2004–2006), to investigate how nitrogen (N) input influenced N leaching output, and if there were differences in N retention between the old-growth and the young forests in the subtropical monsoon region of southern China. The ambient throughfall inputs were 23–27 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in the young forests and 29–35 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in the old-growth forest. In the control plots without experimental N addition, a net N retention was observed in the young forests (on average 6–11 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹), but a net N loss occurred in the old-growth forest (−13 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Experimental N addition immediately increased DIN leaching in all three forests, with 25–66% of added N leached over the 3-year experiment. At the lowest level of N addition (50 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹), the percentage N loss was higher in the old-growth forest (66% of added N) than in the two young forests (38% and 26%). However, at higher levels of N addition (100 and 150 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹), the old-growth forest exhibited similar N losses (25–43%) to those in the young forests (28–43%). These results indicate that N retention is largely determined by the forest successional stages and the levels of N addition. Compared to most temperate forests studied in Europe and North America, N leaching loss in these seasonal monsoon subtropical forests occurred mainly in the rainy growing season, with measured N loss in leaching substantially higher under both ambient deposition and experimental N additions.