Land Allocation with the Introduction of Teak: A Case Study of Smallholder Farms in Southern Togo

Subsistence landholders in southern Togo are interested in planting teak on their land for income generation. The purpose of this study was to determine how smallholder farmers could allocate land among maize, cassava, and teak plantings in order to optimize financial returns. A linear programming model was developed to calculate the optimal land allocation for maize, cassava, and teak. The model was solved for five farmer types using 15- and 30-yr teak rotations, with timber priced at alternative market and government market prices, and with discount (real interest) rates of 8, 11, and 15%. The analyses indicate that growing teak is profitable for most smallholders if grown on a 15-yr rotation and sold on the alternative market. For Land Rich-Labor Poor farmers, teak is profitable under all regimes.     

柚木菌根及其对苗期生长影响的研究

在广东、广西、云南 7个点进行采样调查的结果表明 ,在自然条件下 ,7个柚木根系样品全部感染AM菌 ,感染率达 4 0 %　 70 % ,感染指数达 11 6 7　 19 17;4个AM菌对 12个不同地理种源柚木苗人工接种的结果表明 ,全部处理均形成感染 ,感染率达 70 %　 10 0 % ;利用 3个AM菌对 4个柚木无性系进行人工接种 ,感染率达 86 %　 10 0 % ,感染指数达 2 8 33　 5 2 5 0 ;接种株苗高比对照增加 5 4 0 %　4 0 8% ,地径增加 5 %　 4 30 % ,生物量增加 116 4 %　 2 5 74 8% ;统计结果表明 ,无论无性系、菌种或无性系×菌种在苗木高、地径及生物量上与对照的差异均为极显著 ;综合比较 ,3个菌种对柚木生长均有接种效果 ,以G90 0 4效果最好 ,G6 0 0 8菌株次之 ,再次是G30 0 6菌株     

Hedonic Price Analysis of Teak Logs

Implicit economic values of physical attributes of teak logs (girth, length, straightness and soundness) were estimated using hedonic regression. The influence of spatial and temporal variations on teak wood prices was also estimated. The auction prices of teak wood at various Timber Sales Depots of the Forest Department of Kerala State in India during the period 2006–2010 were used for the study. Traders ascribed over 80 % of variation in teak wood prices to girth, straightness and soundness of logs. A reduction in age at felling of teak plantations in forest areas is proposed. The study also underlines the need to continue tree improvement programs and silvicultural operations for the production of high quality teak wood and thereby increase the profitability of teak plantations.     

Teak (Tectona grandis), fruit trees and other perennials used by hill farmers of northern Laos

Hilly topography and inaccessible markets leave limited alternatives for Lao upland farmers who grow rice in slash-and-burn systems. They plant banana, mango, papaya, coconut and other perennials and collect forest products, specially bamboo shoot, banana inflorescence, rattan, cardamom, and benzoin for home consumption and market. Teak is the most important perennial planted on upland fields but farmers having teak are more likely to belong to the lowland ethnic groups and own lowland rice fields. Farmers preferred teak over fruit trees and coffee because of the better market potential and 82% considered cash income or wood for construction and 18% the securing of land tenure as major reasons for planting teak. Insufficient financial resources, non-availability of land, lack of seedlings, lack of labor and lack of experience were regarded as the main reasons for not planting teak by 41, 39, 35, 28 and 13% of non-teak growers, respectively. Plantations are often interplanted with rice for the first 1–3 years. Resource-poor families generally cannot risk the long-term investments and credit or modified systems combining food, livestock, and timber production are necessary to allow them to take part in the potentially lucrative teak production.     

State of Urban Nurseries in Bangladesh: A Case Study from the North-Eastern Region

The state of urban seedling nurseries in the north-eastern region of Bangladesh is examined with a focus on production and profitability of the enterprises. Twenty-eight sample nurseries out of the 97 nursery enterprises in Sylhet town were selected at random, and operators personally interviewed. It was found that the entrepreneurs are not highly educated though they believed that a basic level of education is required to understand the management of young nursery stock. Labourers of various employment categories work in the enterprises and their wage is determined by their skill, gender and efficiency. Capital and operating costs vary among the enterprises according to land value, production capacity, infrastructure type and workforce size. Production capacity ranges from 10,000 to 5 M seedlings/year with an average 836,000, though actual average production is only 341,000 seedlings/year. The production cost per seedling ranges from Tk. 4 to 50 while sale value ranges from Tk. 10 to 60. The most frequently sold species are Acacia mangium, Swietenia macrophylla, Tectona grandis, Mangifera indica, Litchi chinensis and Cocos nucifera. Nursery techniques and cultural practices adopted by nursery operators depend on the type of species and its silvicultural requirement. Despite some problems, including lack of suitable land for nursery establishment and inadequate level of technical knowledge for high quality seedling management, it seems that production of tree seedlings is a promising profitable small-scale business in the study area.     

Assessing Market Potential of Agroforestry Tree Seedlings in Western Kenya

In this study, Porter’s framework is used to analyse the forces that coordinate and control the market for agroforestry tree seedlings in the Nyando basin in Western Kenya where smallholder farmers were assisted by non-governmental and research organisations to start tree seedling nurseries, with a view to fostering adoption of agroforestry in the region. In addition, financial viability of the enterprise is assessed and the resources and interventions required to improve the operators’ competitiveness and make the enterprise sustainable are identified. Primary data collected from eight nursery operators and sixty agroforestry farmers are used and supplemented with secondary information obtained from relevant literature to gain an insight into the tree seedling industry within and outside the region. The results indicate that the tree seedling industry is highly competitive and is characterised by several small-scale operators who employ similar strategies and produce and sell nearly homogenous products. Consequently, competition is based on price rather than on strategies that require capital investments such as branding, product differentiation and product promotion. The enterprise is financially viable but the gross margins, particularly those of timber tree seedlings, are sensitive to low seedling prices suggesting that competitors are exerting pressure on prices and profitability. Thus, to gain an edge over the competitors, the small-scale operators need to build competitive advantage by adopting strategies that allow them to charge higher prices for their products, maintain customer brand loyalty and understand the coordination, control and relationships within the industry.     

Evaluation of early growth performance of 41 clones of teak(Tectona grandis Linn. f.) at four microsites in Purwakarta,Indonesia

Teak(Tectona grandis Linn. f.), one of the mostvalued tree species in the world, is slow-growing with a long period until it can be harvested;therefore, ensuring that only high-quality seedlings or clones are selected for planting is critical. The main objective was to determine performance and repeatability of selected clones in terms of growth and survival rates in different micro-environments. A 2-year clonal trial using 41 clones and a local seedling of teak as a control were grown at 4 microsites differing in spacing, soil fertility and alley crops to assess tree height, diameter and survival rate that was evaluated in Purwakarta, West Java, Indonesia using a randomized complete block design with four replicates of each clone at each microsite. Teak growth was influenced by clone(p < 0.01), microsite(p < 0.05) and clone 9 micrositeinteraction(p<0.01). The interaction clone 9 microsite resulted in several potential superior clones that differed in terms of growth rates at each microsite. On the basis of diameter only, superior clones(nos. 14, 18, 24, 30 and 37)were identified. Repeatability estimated was Rc2= 0.84 for diameter and Rc2= 0.77 for height. Growth performance of teak trees varied among microsites. Repeatability values for diameter and height characters were high. The effect of variable growth on each clone was influenced by genetic factors, environmental factors and the interaction of genetics 9 environment. Microsite significantly affected growth of teak clones. Clone 9 microsite interaction significantly affected growth of clones and led to the growth of superior clones at each microsite.     

油茶不同无性系嫁接育苗效果调查

以福建省油茶优良无性系M43、M48和M60为接穗,普通油茶芽苗为砧木,进行嫁接育苗;采用随机区组调查法对油茶不同无性系芽苗砧嫁接苗的育苗效果进行调查研究,结果表明:油茶不同无性系芽苗砧嫁接苗的成活率、成苗率的差异不明显,苗高、地径之间存在显著差异,高径比之间存在极显著差异。3个无性系嫁接苗成活率和成苗率分别为82.1%~84.9%和75.2%~79.8%,苗高和地径分别为9.62~11.67 cm和0.31~0.36 cm。。     

柚木嫩枝扦插

对柚木组培苗田间扦插扩繁的主要技术开展了研究.结果表明:不同无性系的萌条数量有显著差异,高的达14.8 条/月,低的5.5 条/月,平均9.1 条/月;从0.05～2.00 mg/L,随着IBA浓度的提高,生根率、根条数、总根长等生根指标均呈现有规律的变化;综合考虑各种生根指标,以IBA0.05 mg/L为最佳生根激素处理;扦插介质对柚木插穗生根有显著的影响,以泥炭土 黄心土按1∶1混合为最佳扦插介质;不同无性系的扦插成活率不同,从56.7%至90.0%,变动幅度大;随扦插季节变化,生根率和成活率均呈现有规律的变化,5～6月份的生根率中等,7～8月最高,9～10月份迅速下降,成活率随季节的变化也是两头低、中间高,6～8月的成活率最高,大于93%;综合考虑生根率、成活率和苗木生长期,5～8月份为柚木适宜的嫩枝扦插季节.     

Smallholder Teak and Agrarian Change in Northern Laos

Smallholder teak (Tectona grandis) plantations have become increasingly prominent in the landscape of Luang Prabang Province, Lao PDR. While the global market for teak-wood is attractive, investment has been driven by a range of factors, including changes to land legislation, land-use planning, taxation incentives, and government and non-government programs and promotions. The establishment of teak stands provides a labour-saving land use for households, potentially freeing up household resources for other farm and non-farm opportunities. However, the degree to which households can participate in the industry varies within and between villages. This paper reviews some of the underlying incentives for the expansion of teak plantations, examines the livelihood activities of both teak and non-teak producers in five case study villages in Luang Prabang, and explores the differential outcomes emerging from the expansion of smallholder teak production. The survey revealed that teak planting has been more extensive among households with a longer history of settlement, where the household head is older and better educated, where household members have off-farm sources of income, and where the household has access to paddy land and is thus more likely to be self-sufficient in rice. Households that depend on shifting cultivation for their livelihoods, without access to alternative productive land or income sources, will continue to have difficulty planting teak or holding on to the land they do manage to plant. The paper concludes that the establishment and improvement of teak plantations, like other apparently technical interventions aimed at providing a ‘pathway out of poverty’, need to be seen in the context of wider processes of agrarian change and differentiation to appreciate the resultant impacts on livelihood trajectories.     

Growth and mineral nutrient analysis of teak (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tectona grandis</Emphasis>) grown on acidic soils in south China

Teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) is widely planted in the world due to its high market demand, economic, ecological and social value. Its plantations have mostly been established and expanded into sites that are acidic to severely acidic in southern China. But, there are no available and specific evidence-based nutrient management techniques. To better recognize and understand the relationship between teak tree growth and nutrient content in the foliage and soil and establish nutrient norms are critical to optimally manage these young plantations. We studied the foliar nutrient and soil chemistry in 19 representative teak plantations aged 5–8 years. Regression analysis indicated that the mean annual increment of teak volume was linearly and positively correlated with foliar N, Ca, Fe and B concentrations, with soil base saturation percentage, available P and Zn concentrations, and negatively correlated with soil Al concentration. Only if the Ca and Mg contents in soil were enhanced, could the increase in soil base saturation percentage benefit teak growth. A revised classification of low-and high-yielding stands was established by using a sorting method of principal components over 6 foliar macro and 8 micro elements in a Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS). Specific DRIS norms for teak plantations in acid soils were derived. The nutrient balance of N, P, K Ca, Mg, Zn, B with Fe or Al, Ca with Mg, and Fe with Al provided a key to promote the growth of teak in acid soils. Meanwhile, soil Zn was also found as a primary trace element that affected teak growth in this study.     

Socioeconomic Conditions Affecting Smallholder Timber Management in Gunungkidul District,Yogyakarta Special Region,Indonesia

Indonesia is one of the largest teak timber producers in the world. The Javanese State Forest Company has been a major producer of teak timber in Indonesia; however, log production decreased drastically due to severe illegal logging after the collapse of Suharto regime. In contrast, small-scale private forests (PFs) owned by local farmers have expanded and are expected to be a new source of teak timber. Long rotation is a critical factor in producing a larger diameter log with a higher heartwood proportion. However, harvest timing in PFs is traditionally decided based on individual farmers’ needs even if trees are still young and of small diameter. Therefore, traditional harvesting is an obstacle to producing high-quality teak timber. The objectives of this study are to (1) identify the household economies and PF management styles of local farmers, (2) characterize the local farmers who conduct traditional harvesting, and (3) suggest key considerations for PF policymaking. Key informant interviews and semi-structured interviews with local farmers were conducted in three villages in Gunungkidul district, Yogyakarta Special Region. The study identified the household economies, the ownership and management structures, and the traditional harvesting in PFs in the three villages, and reaffirmed diversity and complexity of PFs. It appears that PF management is influenced by topographic and socioeconomic conditions and differs widely across villages. Therefore, it is important to consider the diversity and complexity of PFs in PF policymaking.     

湿地松改良种子园部分无性系的早期遗传评价

利用湿地松改良种子园的建园无性系生产的8个全同胞家系和20个自由授粉家系苗木共营建测定林3块。3－4年生的测定林数据分析结果表明，参试的自由授粉家系作全同胞家系的平均生长量显著地大于台山湿地松初级种子园的，20个自由授粉家系的树高、胸径、材积平均增益分别为5．54％，7．77％和23．41％，初步实现了建园目标；同一无性系的不同采种年份的自由授粉子代生长存在着差异，有随着种子园母树年龄的增大而表现渐佳的趋势；改良园中还存在着少量的误选无性系，需要继续作测定和淘汰。从无性系亲子的生长量相关分析中发现，生长较差的自由授粉家系，较大部分产自生长量缩小的母本无性系。     

Socioeconomic Causes of Unregulated Teak Plantation Exploitation in Edo State,Nigeria

Edo State teak plantations witnessed unregulated exploitation between 1986 and 2001, which impacted the people, and the environment. This study was undertaken to determine the primary and secondary causes of unregulated exploitation. Ten teak plantations were randomly selected in Edo State with four 25-m × 25-m plots laid out in each plantation, to obtain information on the rates of exploitation based on the assessment of relic trees. Socioeconomic data were obtained through the use of 3 sets of questionnaires developed and administered to 958 respondents comprising 213 forestry staff, 437 farmers, and 308 saw millers/timber contractors in 10 selected communities out of the 28 settlements adjoining these plantations. The results revealed there was significant difference (p < .05) between primary and secondary causes. Poor forest policy implementation had a significant (p < .05) positive effect on teak exploitation. Idale had a dominant 11.16 m³ ha^{? 1} yr^?1 mean annual increment (MAI) which accounted for 17.61%, while the least value was recorded at Udo-Nikrowa. It is imperative that commensurate efforts at reforestation and the use of lesser known timber species need to be encouraged.     

High seedling recruitment of indigenous tree species in forest plantations in Kakamega Forest,western Kenya

Tree plantations are often used to compensate for the destruction and conversion of natural forests in the tropics. An important question is whether these plantations allow for the regeneration of indigenous tree species and are expected to transform into more natural forests in the future. To evaluate the potential of differently managed forest types for seedling recruitment of indigenous tree species we studied structural characteristics as well as tree and seedling communities in stands of natural forest, different types of tree plantations and secondary forest in Kakamega Forest, western Kenya. Forest types differed considerably in structural characteristics and tree composition with stands of natural forest significantly differing from all other forest types in vertical foliage height diversity and number of late-successional tree species. By contrast, total seedling species richness and number did not differ among the forest types. Yet, number of seedlings of late-successional species decreased from natural forest and plantations of a mixture of indigenous tree species towards monocultures and secondary forests while number of seedlings of early-successional species increased in the same order. A joint Principal Component Analysis (PCA) corroborated higher similarity among seedling communities than among tree communities. Our results indicate a convergence of recruiting seedling communities in different forest management types suggesting that tree plantations might buffer forest loss to a certain extent and may have the potential to develop into more natural forest over time.     

Comparison and early selection of new clones in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Populus tomentosa</Emphasis>

In our study, two experimental plantations, respectively, with 24 and 32 new clones of P tomentosa, were established in Weixian County, Hebei Province and Wuzhi County, Henan Province using a completely randomized block design. A comparative study was conducted on the continuous 5-year-old height and diameter at breast height （DBH） of new clones in the two plantations. As well, based on genetic correlation over the years of testing of these clones, a preliminary study of early selection was carried out. Results indicate that the growth traits of the new clones in Weixian were better than those in Wuzhi. The traits show weak correlation between the two plantations. In some stands, the height, DBH and seedling volume of 5-year-old clones presented statistically significant differences among clones. In both plantations, the new clones showed over 0.6 repeatability of height, DBH and volume, as well as larger coefficients of variation （CV）. The fact that these clones achieved the largest repeatability and CV in the second year suggests that these traits are highly controlled by heredity. Thus, based on the growth traits of the second year, the new clones B305, B307, B303, H75, BT18, BT17 and 21J-1 were considered suitable in Weixian. In Wuzhi, the new clones had variable repeatability and CVs in various years and their correlation of growth traits among different years was not high. We conclude that early selection of new clones was not feasible in Wuzhi.     

Effects of active pasture,teak (Tectona grandis) and mixed native plantations on soil chemistry in Costa Rica

In this study soil samples were taken from the O/A and B horizons of undisturbed forest, active pasture, and 8- to 12-year-old teak and mixed native plantations. Samples were analyzed for K, Ca, Mg, soil organic carbon, pH, exchangeable acidity, bulk density, and compared with a fertility equation. Bulk density was significantly lower in the undisturbed forest than other land uses, suggesting that after approximately 10 years of growth neither plantation lowered bulk density significantly from that of the active pasture. Teak plantations had significantly higher Mg and K (B horizon) and Ca (O/A horizon) concentrations than the undisturbed forest. This trend suggests that exchangeable base concentrations increase when land use changes from undisturbed forest to pasture, then pasture to plantation, with the most pronounced effect of this in teak plantations exhibiting more high fertility plots than other land uses. Soil organic carbon concentration was similar for all land uses except for a significantly lower concentration in teak plantations than in active pasture (O/A horizons). These results suggest that teak plantations may be advantageous for increasing soil fertility but, with respect to restoration of undisturbed forest conditions, present significant deviations in soil chemistry. Options for improved plantations soil management are discussed.     

Comparison and early selection of new clones in Populus tomentosa

In our study, two experimental plantations, respectively, with 24 and 32 new clones of P. tomentosa, were established in Weixian County, Hebei Province and Wuzhi County, Henan Province using a completely randomized block design. A comparative study was conducted on the continuous 5-year-old height and diameter at breast height (DBH) of new clones in the two plantations. As well, based on genetic correlation over the years of testing of these clones, a preliminary study of early selection was carried out. Results indicate that the growth traits of the new clones in Weixian were better than those in Wuzhi The traits show weak correlation between the two plantations. In some stands, the height, DBH and seedling volume of 5-year-old clones presented statistically sig-nificant differences among clones. In both plantations, the new clones showed over 0.6 repeatability of beight, DBH and volume, as well as larger coefficients of variation (CV). The fact that these clones achieved the largest repeatability and CV in the second year suggests that these traits are highly controlled by heredity. Thus, based on the growth traits of the second year, the new clones B305, B307, B303, H75, BT18, BTI7 and 21J-1 were considered suitable in Weixian. hi Wuzhi, the new clones had variable repeatability and CVs in various years and their correlation of growth traits among different years was not high. We conclude that early selection of new clones was not feasible in Wuzhi.     

单叶省藤组培苗造林初步研究

单叶省藤(CalamussimplicifoliusC F Wei)是我国华南地区的优质商品藤种,其藤茎质量好,为编制家具的优质原料[1～3]。70年代以来的栽培试验表明,它不仅适应性强,而且速生,可广泛栽培于海南、广东、广西、云南和福建等省区,为我国棕榈藤栽培的首选藤种[1]。但野生资源由于长期过度采伐而枯竭,少量试验林未结实或结实甚少,推广栽培因种质资源奇缺而受到严重制约[2]。通过组织培养等生物技术工厂化快繁单叶省藤,是解决扩大栽培种苗问题的最好途径。因而开展了单叶省藤组培和造林技术研究,现将组培苗造林试验结果及其特殊性予以报道。1　…