The dietary linoleic and linolenic fatty acids requirements of the prawn Penaeus monodon

The dietary requirement of the prawn Penaeus monodon for linoleic (LOA) and linolenic (LNA) fatty acids was examined in the absence of other long-chain polyunsaturated and highly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA-20:2, 20:3, 22:2, 22:3 and HUFA-18:4, 20:4, 20:5, 22:4, 22:5, 22:6, respectively). Incremented dietary amounts of LOA (7, 14, 21, 28 and 35% of total fatty acids) and LNA (0, 7, 14, 21 and 28% of total fatty acids) were examined in a 5 × 5 factorial growth experiment lasting 50 days. An additional diet containing both PUFA and HUFA (cod-liver oil) was provided as a reference. The total lipid content (excluding sterols) of each of the 26 diets was maintained at 70 g kg⁻¹ of dry diet. The fatty acid composition of the neutral lipid was manipulated by blending different plant oils and supplementing with purified free fatty acids to provide the desired fatty acid composition upon addition to the total diet. At the end of the 50-day growth experiment, the prawn digestive gland (DG) was quantitatively analysed for lipid and fatty acid content. Prawns fed the reference diet increased in weight (mean ± SEM) by 214 ± 6%. Growth was generally greater when combinations of LOA and LNA were used. The best growth (213 ± 17%) was obtained with the diet containing a fatty acid content of 14% LOA and 21% LNA. This growth was comparable to that of the reference diet. The digestibility of the total lipid in the diet was usually higher when both fatty acids were present. The lipid content of the DG was highest in prawns fed diets containing both LOA and LNA, similar to the growth response. The fatty acid composition of the prawn's DG lipid reflected the fatty acid composition of the diet. However, the maximum assimilation of LNA in the DG lipid (14.2% of DG lipid fatty acids) was about half that of LOA (32.5% of DG lipid fatty acids).     

Optimizing the essential fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid, in the diet of the prawn, Penaeus monodon

The dietary requirements of Penaeus monodon for eicosapentaenoic (20:5n‐3; EPA) and docosahexaenoic (22:6n‐3; DHA) acids were examined. These requirements were examined when dietary levels of linoleic (18:2n‐6; LOA) and linolenic acids (18:3n‐3; LNA) were also provided at previously established optimal levels of 14 and 21% respectively of the total lipid fatty acids. A 5 × 5 factorial design was used with incremental amounts (0, 4, 8, 12 and 16% of total fatty acids) of EPA and/or DHA. An additional diet containing cod‐liver oil was provided as a reference diet. The total lipid content of all of the 25 treatments and reference diets was maintained at the same level of 75 g kg^?1. Growth of prawns fed with the reference diet after 50 days was 244 ± 21%. The greatest response to singular additions of EPA or DHA was with a 12% inclusion of either fatty acid, resulting in 287 ± 21 and 293 ± 18% weight gain, respectively. Growth was generally better when combinations of EPA and DHA were used, the optimal combination being EPA 4% and DHA 4%, resulting in 335 ± 25% weight gain. Addition of high levels of either of the highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) in the diet had a negative effect on growth. Digestibilities of the total neutral lipid and specific fatty acids were examined during the growth trials. The digestibility of total neutral lipid was usually higher when either or both HUFA were present, however there were few significant differences between treatments that contained either or both HUFA. Following the growth trials, digestive glands (DG) of prawns fed with the various diets were analysed to determine the total lipid content and fatty acid composition. Total lipid in the digestive gland increased with the inclusion of DHA, but was not significantly affected by the addition of EPA. The fatty acid composition of the digestive gland lipid generally reflected that of the diet. However, the maximum retention of EPA (11.1% of total DG fatty acids) and DHA (10.7% of total DG fatty acids), was not directly proportional to the amount of either fatty acid present in the diet. These results demonstrate that both EPA and DHA have considerable growth promoting capacity. This growth promoting capacity is enhanced when an optimal balance of both fatty acids are incorporated into the diet.     

Nutritional evaluation of fatty acids for the open thelycum shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei: II. Effect of dietary n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated and highly unsaturated fatty acids on juvenile shrimp growth, survival, and fatty acid composition

This study evaluated the nutritional value of dietary n‐3 and n‐6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) such as linoleic (LOA) and linolenic (LNA) acids, and highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) such as arachidonic (AA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA), and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids for juvenile Litopenaeus vannamei, based on their effects on growth, survival, and fatty acid composition of hepatopancreas and muscle tissue. Diets contained 5% total lipid. A basal diet contained palmitic and stearic acids each at 2.5% of diet. Five diets contained 0.5% dry weight of LOA, LNA, AA, EPA, or DHA. An additional diet evaluated HUFA in combination by supplementing at 0.5% of diet, a mixture of n‐3 HUFA. All HUFA showed higher nutritional value than PUFA for shrimp and produced significantly (P < 0.05) higher final weight, weight gain, and total lipid in shrimp muscle. Fatty acid profiles of shrimp tissues reflected the composition of the dietary lipids. In general, saturated fatty acids were more abundant in the neutral factions, while PUFA and HUFA were more abundant in the polar fractions of tissues. Under these experimental conditions, HUFA had much greater nutritional value than PUFA for juvenile L. vannamei; moreover, dietary requirements for PUFA were not demonstrated.     

Effect of dietary protein levels on growth of Penaeus stylirostris juveniles

The shrimp Penaeus stylirostris is currently produced on a commercial scale in Tahiti and New Caledonia. Both super-intensive (80 animals m⁻²) and semi intensive (25 m⁻²) systems are promoted. Locally produced commercial feed contains 380–400 g kg⁻¹ crude protein (CP) without special consideration for environmental impact. The need for a 'low pollution' diet implies reconsideration of the optimum dietary protein level for this species. Under experimental conditions, six isoenergetic practical diets ranging from 270 g kg⁻¹ to 440 g kg⁻¹ CP were formulated and fed to satiation for 30 days to juvenile P. stylirostris ; average growth rates were between 5.5 and 7.5 g per month with survival rates > 90%.
The lowest protein levels 270–310 g kg⁻¹, gave significantly ( P < 0.05) poorer growth (5.5 g per 30 days) than was observed with 330–430 g kg⁻¹ CP; 330 g kg⁻¹ CP may be recommended, and as it is lower than levels in diets used currently, there is a possibility of reducing nitrogenous waste. In addition to growth response, protein efficiency ratio, protein productive value and food conversion (feed/gain) all supported a recommended dietary protein level of 330 g kg⁻¹. Future prospects for practical feeds with even lower CP levels are considered.     

Evaluation of the dietary essentiality of vitamins for Penaeus monodon

The effect of deletion of individual water-soluble (thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, cyanocobalamin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, niacin, biotin, choline, inositol and ascorbic acid) and fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) in semipurified diets on growth and survival of juvenile shrimp, Penaeus monodon , was studied in the laboratory for 8 weeks. Diets lacking riboflavin and vitamin K did not affect growth and survival of shrimp. However, deletion of inositol and choline in the diet resulted in poor growth. Maximum growth was observed in the control diet (C1) supplemented with all vitamins. Diets deficient in ascorbic acid, biotin, folic acid, niacin, thiamin and α-tocopherol resulted in poor appetite and poorer feed conversion efficiency. All treatments except the control (C1) resulted in histopathological changes in the digestive gland cells. Detachment or destruction of the epithelial cells was observed in all treatments lacking individual vitamins but more severely in the treatment without a vitamin supplement, followed by inositol, choline and ascorbic acid deficient diets.     

Flocculated microalgae concentrates as diets for larvae of the tiger prawn Penaeus monodon Fabricius

Fresh algal culture is a major bottleneck in the aquaculture industry. Substitutes that are cost-effective and simplify hatchery procedures, such as algae concentrates need to be evaluated. Four species of alga – Chaetoceros muelleri , C. calcitrans , a tropical Skeletonema sp. and Thalassiosira pseudonana – were concentrated by flocculation, stored for 6 weeks at 4 °C and then compared with their fresh counterparts as feeds for Penaeus monodon larvae. The algae were fed at either high or low cell densities with no supplements.
Fresh C. muelleri promoted the highest survival, greatest weight gain and fastest development to mysis 1. Larvae fed this diet were twice as heavy as those fed most of the other diets. Concentrated C. muelleri or T. pseudonana promoted similar survival rates to that of larvae fed fresh C. muelleri although development rates were slower. Larvae fed fresh C. calcitrans had high survival and intermediate development, but those fed the concentrate had very poor survival and development. Skeletonema sp., whether in the fresh or concentrated form, was a poor diet for prawn larvae: it resulted in high mortality and slow development. Cell density did not affect survival or dry weight of larvae but did affect development in some cases. Flocculated algal concentrates show promise as replacement feeds for fresh algae.     

A reference diet for nutritional studies of the giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon

Critical evaluation of the nutrient requirements of an animal requires the use of a purified reference diet. In this study, the effects of either a purified reference experimental diet, a practical experimental diet and an imported commercial diet on the growth and nutritional condition of the prawn Penaeusmonodon were compared. The reference diet, based on widely available ingredients of consistent and known nutrient content, supported excellent prawn growth when fed either ad libitum or subsatiation (≈ 75% of the mean initial satiation intake). In a 6-week experiment, growth (as percentage increase in weight, ± SEM) of the prawns fed ad libitum differed significantly (P < 0.05) between each diet in the order: practical (142 ± 10%), reference (121 ± 9%) and commercial (91 ± 16%). Growth for the reference diet fed subsatiation was 116 ± 4%, and was not significantly (P > 0.05) different from that obtained with the same diet fed ad libitum. Dry matter food conversion for the reference diet was significantly (P < 0.05) better when fed subsatiation (1.58 ± 0.08) rather than ad libitum (2.08 ± 0.06) and better than that obtained with either the practical (3.40 ± 0.15) or commercial (3.02 ± 0.28) diets, which were not significantly (P > 0.05) different from each other. The lipid content (mg g^–1 of prawn) of the digestive gland of prawns fed ad libitum was similar for reference, practical and commercial diets (6.03 ± 0.38, 4.92 ± 0.90 and 4.92 ± 0.95 mg g^–1 of prawn, respectively), but significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that for the reference diet fed subsatiation (4.73 ± 0.38 mg g^–1 of prawn).     

Effect of arachidonic acid supplementation on reproductive performance of tank‐domesticated Penaeus monodon

The reproductive performance of domesticated Penaeus monodon was assessed when fed on two experimental semi‐moist maturation diets varying in their arachidonic acid content for 21 days before ablation and throughout a 17‐day reproductive assessment. The biochemical composition of the two semi‐moist two diets was similar with the exception of arachidonic acid (ARA) content; the basal diet (BAS) consisting of 0.9 g kg^?1 DM ARA (1.1% of total fatty acids) and the supplemented diet (ARA‐SUP) consisting of 5.0 g kg^?1 DM ARA (5.8% of total fatty acids). ARA/EPA and ARA/DPA ratios were 0.1 in the BAS diet and 0.5 in the ARA‐SUP diet. Fatty acid composition of the spawned eggs was comparable between diets with the exception of ARA concentration, which was higher in the ARA‐SUP (8.95 ± 0.44 g kg^?1 DM) than the BAS (3.23 ± 0.17 g kg^?1 DM) (P < 0.0001). The cumulative percentage of females spawning (mean ± SE after 17 days) (31.9 ± 7.0%; 24.1 ± 1.3%), number of spawnings per female (0.48 ± 0.1; 0.29 ± 0.02), and eggs per female (62 520 ± 16 935; 44 521 ± 9914) was significantly (P < 0.0001) higher for the ARA‐SUP than the BAS. Results of this study suggest that arachidonic acid plays a key role in promoting egg development and spawning in P. monodon.     

饲料中n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值对罗氏沼虾幼虾生长性能和抗氧化能力的影响

为探讨饲料多不饱和脂肪酸n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值对罗氏沼虾幼虾生长性能、虾体肌肉组成、抗氧化能力、血清生理指标以及消化能力的影响,实验设计了n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值分别为0.37 (D1)、0.59 (D2)、0.93 (D3)、1.51 (D4)和4.38 (D5)的5种等氮等脂饲料饲喂罗氏沼虾幼虾8周,每组设4重复,每个重复40尾虾 。结果显示,饲料n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值对罗氏沼虾幼虾存活率 (SR)无显著影响;实验虾终末体重 (FW)、增重率 (WGR)和特定生长率 (SGR)随饲料n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值增加先升后降,均在D3组最高;且D3组虾有最大的肝胰腺蛋白酶活性及脂肪酸合成酶活性。虾体肌肉粗蛋白质、水分和灰分含量不受饲料n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值影响,但总脂肪含量在D3组显著高于其他组;各组虾体肌肉的n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值的变化趋势与饲料的n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值变化趋势呈正相关。随饲料n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值增加,实验虾血清和肝胰腺中超氧化物歧化酶 (SOD)活性、总抗氧化能力 (T-AOC)和血清铜蓝蛋白 (CP)含量均呈现先升后降趋势,并在n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值为0.93~1.51时达到最大,但丙二醛 (MDA)含量持续上升;D1组血清总胆固醇 (T-CHO)和甘油三酯 (TG)含量显著高于其他组;血清谷草转氨酶 (AST)和谷丙转氨酶 (ALT)活性先降后升,且D3组最低。研究表明,饲料适宜的n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA可显著提升罗氏沼虾生长性能和抗氧化能力,对增重率和特定生长率进行折线回归,建议罗氏沼虾幼虾饲料中最适n-3 PUFA/n-6 PUFA比值为0.86~0.94。     

Effects of dietary lipid sources on growth and fatty acid composition of juvenile shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei

This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary lipid sources on the growth performance and fatty acid (FA) composition of juvenile shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. Six isoenergetic and isonitrogenous semi‐purified diets containing casein, solvent‐extracted soybean meal and gelatin as protein sources, were supplemented with 60 g kg⁻¹ of lipid sources. The lipid sources included: pollack fish oil (PO), pork lard (PL), soy oil (SO), peanut oil (PN), rapeseed oil (RO) and a mixture of pollack fish oil and soy oil (POSO 1 : 1 w/w). Each diet was fed to juvenile shrimp (0.10 g average weight) four times daily in triplicate tanks to apparent satiation (feeding ratio was about 8%) for 8 weeks. At the end of the experiment, weight gain, specific growth rate and protein efficiency ratio were significantly higher for shrimp fed the diet containing PO and the POSO mixture oil than the other lipid sources. The nutritional values of SO, RO, PN and PL were similar. Shrimp fed on PO, mixture oil of POSO and SO had better survival rates than the other lipid sources, and shrimp fed the PL had the lowest survival rate. There were significant differences in lipid contents of whole body and hepatopancreas amongst the dietary treatments; however, lipid contents of tail muscle were not significantly affected by the dietary lipid sources. Shrimps fed POSO diet had higher protein content in whole body than those fed the other lipid sources, and shrimp fed PO diet had highest crude protein content of the tail muscle. A high correlation was found between dietary FA composition and FA composition of whole shrimp. FA composition of the whole body was generally affected by dietary lipid sources, especially dietary unsaturated FA.     

A study of the arachidonic acid requirements of the giant tiger prawn, Penaues monodon

This study examined the dietary requirement of arachidonic acid (ARA) when that of linoleic acid (LOA), the natural precursor to ARA, was also satisfied with linolenic acid (LNA) and also with and without the other key dietary highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA). Growth by prawns fed diets supplemented with ARA was poorer than in diets where it was not present. Supplementation of ARA to diets with either optimized HUFA or just optimised poly unsaurated fatty acids (PUFA) (i.e. LOA, LNA) resulted in poorer growth. Growth was poorest by prawns (215 ± 13%) fed diets with ARA supplemented at 20% of the total fatty acids but including 7% LOA, 21% LNA and 4% of both eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Growth was best in prawns fed diets devoid of ARA but with 7% LOA and 21% LNA (350 ± 19%). Prawns fed the reference diet (348 ± 21%) and the other diet devoid of ARA but containing about 7% LOA, 21% LNA and 4% of both EPA and DHA (345 ± 18%) had similar growth. The growth responses were not effects of altered lipid or fatty acid digestibilities. Indeed supplementation of ARA to the diet marginally improved the digestibility of the total neutral lipid in the diet and the digestibilities of some other dietary fatty acids. The amount of lipid in the digestive glands of prawns fed with the diets was reduced by the inclusion of ARA in the dietary lipids. Composition of the lipids in the digestive gland (DG) of the prawns was almost directly related to the composition of their dietary lipids. The proportion of ARA in the total fatty acids increased with level of supplementation of dietary ARA. An increased level of dietary ARA reduced the proportion of EPA, DHA in the DG lipid and also the total n‐3 and n‐6 fatty acids in the DG lipid. The results of this study support that addition of ARA to the diet of Penaues monodon when the other key essential fatty acids (EFA) have been optimized, does not improve their growth performance. It is suggested that key cause for this response may lie in the importance of the balance of the n‐3 to n‐6 fatty acids in the diet of these animals.     

饲料中不同蛋白含量对斑节对虾幼虾生长及消化酶的影响

选用鱼粉、豆粕和大豆浓缩蛋白为主要蛋白源,配置6个蛋白质水平梯度(36%、38%、40%、42%、44%、46%)的饲料,对斑节对虾幼虾(1.03±0.02 g)进行56 d养殖实验,研究饲料中不同蛋白含量对斑节对虾幼虾生长及消化酶活性的影响。结果表明,(1)摄食40%蛋白饲料的斑节对虾的增重率(417.35%)和特定生长率(2.93%·d-1)获得最大值并显著高于36%蛋白饲料组(P<0.05),但与其它各组无显著差异。饲料蛋白水平在38%时的饲料系数(1.88)最低且与44%和46%蛋白饲料组存在显著性差异(P<0.05)。(2)虾体蛋白含量在44%饲料蛋白组最高,且显著高于36%、38%和42%组(P<0.05)。(3)斑节对虾的蛋白质表观消化率在42%蛋白组最高,44%和46%蛋白饲料组的蛋白质效率显著低于36%～42%蛋白饲料组(P<0.05)。(4)随着蛋白水平的提高,斑节对虾的蛋白酶活性呈现由高到低波动的趋势;淀粉酶活性随着饲料蛋白含量的升高而呈下降趋势,胃淀粉酶活性在38%～42%蛋白饲料组显著高于36%蛋白饲料组(P<0.05),肠淀粉酶活性在42%蛋白饲料组显著高于其它各组(P<0.05)。通过饲料中蛋白质含量与增重率的回归分析,斑节对虾幼虾饲料蛋白的适宜含量为39.70%。     

Effects of dietary lipid level and n‐3/n‐6 fatty acid ratio on growth,fatty acid composition and lipid peroxidation in Russian sturgeon Acipenser gueldenstaedtii

The growth performance, fatty acid composition, hepatic lipid content, hepatic somatic index and lipid peroxidation in Russian sturgeon were investigated using diets containing three lipid levels 50 g kg^?1 (L5), 150 g kg^?1 (L15) and 250 g kg^?1 (L25) and three n‐3/n‐6 fatty acid ratios (1 : 3, 1 : 1 and 3 : 1) for 8 weeks. Weight gain significantly increased with the increase in dietary lipid levels at n‐3/n‐6 fatty acid ratios of 1 : 3 and 1 : 1, but not at the 3 : 1 ratio. Correspondingly, fish survival gradually decreased with the increase in dietary lipid at the 3 : 1 n‐3/n‐6 fatty acid ratio. The dietary lipid level significantly affected the composition of whole‐body fatty acid. The retention of highly unsaturated fatty acid dramatically decreased at the level of 250 g kg^?1 dietary lipid. The liver malondialdehyde increased with the increase in dietary lipid levels and the n‐3/n‐6 fatty acid ratios. The contents of lipid and triglyceride in the liver and the hepatic somatic index also increased with the increase in dietary lipid. The diet combination of L25 + 3 : 1 showed the highest aspartate transaminase and alanine transaminase, indicatives of hepatic injury. This study indicates that the L25 + 1 : 3 diet can improve fish growth performance, whereas the L25 + 3 : 1 diet may lead to poor growth performance due to high lipid peroxidation.     

The effect of dietary protein on the growth and survival of the shrimp, Penaeus monodon in outdoor tanks

The comparative effect of reducing the protein content of formulated feed on the growth and survival of black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, and on water quality was tested in outdoor tanks. Three diets, 300, 350 and 400 g kg^?1 crude protein (CP), were fed to P. monodon (3.1 g animals, 25 animals per m²) in each of eight replicated outdoor 2500 L tanks in an 8‐week trial. There was no statistical difference (P > 0.05) in shrimp growth rate (1.34–1.50 g week^?1), survival, or final biomass between the treatments. However, when tanks with lower survival were removed from the analysis (<60 and <80% were tested), shrimp growth rate was statistically higher (P < 0.05) in the 350 and 400 g kg^?1 CP diets than in the 300 g kg^?1 CP diet treatment. There were no differences in the nutritional condition of shrimp between treatments, as determined by moisture and protein content, and lipid content of the digestive gland. Using ¹⁵N‐nitrogen isotope tracers, it was determined that shrimp were consuming natural biota, although these were unlikely to have contributed substantially to their nutrition. Total nitrogen (TN) concentrations in the water column increased over the eight week experiment and were statistically different (P < 0.001) between treatments (3.60, 5.17 and 6.45 mg L^?1 in the 300, 350 and 400 g kg^?1 CP treatments, respectively). Concentrations of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) were also statistically different between treatments and made up 35–40% of the TN in the water column. Concentrations of total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN) and oxides of nitrogen, and fluorescence were not statistically different between treatments but there was a trend of higher concentrations in treatments with higher protein levels. There was no difference in sediment nutrients between treatments. This study has shown that there is scope to reduce the protein content of P. monodon diets but only by 5–10%. However, further validation of these results in commercial ponds is needed. Reducing the feed protein content may result in cost savings and also has the advantage of improving water quality and reducing nitrogen discharge.     

Effects of crushed conspecifics on growth and survival of Penaeus monodon Fabricius post larvae

In the present study, the hypothesis tested was that Penaeus monodon post‐larvae (PL) experience lower growth when exposed to crushed conspecifics, which was achieved by exposing individual P. monodon PL with abundant food for 4 weeks to a gradient from 0 to 100 crushed conspecific PL L^?1. Both dry weight (48.5±7.2 mg) and body size (28.0±1.3 mm) of animals exposed to 1 macerated PL L^?1 were significantly (P≤0.011) higher than those of animals in treatments with 0, 5 and 10 crushed PL L^?1 (average over treatments: 25.6±3.2 mg; 23.4±0.5 mm). All animals died within 1 week when exposed to 70 and 100 crushed PL L^?1, and within 3–4 weeks when exposed to 50 and 30 crushed PL L^?1. Exposure time affected mortality and it appeared that LC₅₀ values decreased from 60 to 13 crushed PL L^?1 from 1 to 4 weeks' exposure. Survival of P. monodon PL was negatively correlated to pH, biological oxygen demand, ammonia and nitrate. In conclusion, low dose of crushed conspecifics has a stimulatory effect on P. monodon PL, as larvae were heavier and larger, while high doses cause high mortality.     

Effect of dietary supplementation of periphyton on growth,immune response and metabolic enzyme activities in Penaeus monodon

A 60‐day indoor trial was conducted to study the effect of periphyton supplementation on metabolic and immune responses in tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon. Periphyton developed over bamboo substrate in outdoor tanks (15 m²) was used as dietary supplement for P. monodon (2.02 ± 0.04 g) reared in 1000 L FRP tanks. Graded levels of periphyton were included in shrimp basal diets: 0% (P0), 3% (P3), 6% (P6), 9% (P9) and P0 diet with natural periphyton (NP) over bamboo substrate. At the end of the trial, P6 and NP showed significantly higher (P < 0.01) growth rate, 23.9% and 20%, respectively, compared with control, P0. Comparatively, lower level of metabolic enzymes, such as lactate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, was recorded in treatments P3, P6 and NP compared with control, P0. The periphyton‐supplemented group, P3 had significantly higher (P < 0.05) superoxide dismutase (15.83 ± 0.96) and catalase activity (15.73 ± 0.69) compared to 6.88 ± 2.84 and 9.15 ± 0.67 unit mg^?1 protein min^?1_, respectively, in P0. Similarly, higher total haemocyte counts, 32.58 ± 1.30, 28.51 ± 3.12 and 27.26 ± 4.43 × 10⁶ cells mL^?1_, were recorded in P6, NP and P3, respectively, compared to P0, 23.57 ± 1.80 × 10⁶ cells mL^?1. After challenge with Vibrio harveyi, P3 recorded the highest relative percentage survival 67% followed by NP (58%) and P6 (42%) compared with control. However, treatment with highest periphyton inclusion (P9) did not differ significantly with P0 on growth and immunological parameters. This study indicates that periphyton supplementation at 3–6% level improves growth, immune response and metabolic activities in P. monodon.     

Pharmacokinetics of oxolinic acid in black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon Fabricius, and the effect of cooking on residues

This study examined the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of oxolinic acid (OA) in black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon Fabricius, in brackish water (salinity 10 g L^?1) at 28–29°C, after intra‐sinus (10 mg kg^?1) and oral (50 mg kg^?1) administration and also investigated the net changes of OA residues in the shrimp after cooking (boiling, baking and frying). The haemolymph concentrations of OA after intra‐sinus dosing were best described by a two‐compartment open model. The distribution and elimination half‐lives were 0.84 and 17.7 h respectively. The apparent volume of distribution at a steady state and the total body clearance were estimated to be 2061 mL kg^?1 and 90.1 mL kg^?1 h^?1 respectively. The bioavailability of OA after an oral administration was 7.9%. The peak haemolymph concentration, the time to peak haemolymph concentration and the elimination half‐life after oral administration were 4.20 μg mL^?1, 4 h and 19.8 h respectively. Oxolinic acid muscle and shell levels increased to a maximum (muscle 1.76 μg g^?1 and shell 8.17 μg g^?1) at 4 h post administration and then decreased with the elimination half‐life value of 20.2 and 21.9 h respectively. Residual OA in muscle and shell was reduced by 20–30% by each cooking procedure examined.     

Nutritional evaluation of fatty acids for the open thelycum shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei: I. Effect of dietary linoleic and linolenic acids at different concentrations and ratios on juvenile shrimp growth, survival and fatty acid composition

A 6‐week feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the nutritional value of dietary linoleic (18:2n‐6, LOA) and linolenic (18:3n‐3, LNA) acids for juvenile Litopenaeus vannamei by determining their effects on growth, survival and fatty acid composition of hepatopancreas and muscle tissue. Diets were formulated to contain 5% total lipid. A basal diet contained only palmitic and stearic acids, each at 2.5% of diet. Six diets contained one of three levels (0.25, 0.5 and 1%) of either LOA or LNA, and three diets had different ratios of LNA/LOA (1, 3, 9) at a combined inclusion level of 0.5% of diet. An additional diet contained 0.5% of a mixture of n‐3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA). The fatty acid profile of hepatopancreas and muscle of shrimp reflected the profile of the diets. HUFA of the n‐3 family showed higher nutritional value than LOA or LNA for juvenile L. vannamei by producing significantly (P < 0.05) higher final weight and weight gain. Neither LOA nor LNA, alone or in combination, improved growth significantly compared with shrimp fed the basal diet.Thus, dietary requirements for LOA and LNA were not demonstrated under these experimental conditions.     

饲料不同n-3/n-6脂肪酸比值对日本沼虾生长、虾体组分、血清抗氧化及相关基因表达的影响

为探讨饲料中n-3/n-6脂肪酸比值对日本沼虾生长性能、虾体肉质及血清抗氧化能力的影响,设计了5种不同n-3/n-6脂肪酸比值(D1:0.29、D2:0.56、D3:1.02、D4:2.20、D5:8.52)的等氮等脂饲料,进行了8周养殖实验,每组设4个重复,每个重复45尾虾。结果显示,饲料n-3/n-6脂肪酸比值对日本沼虾的存活率(SR)无显著影响;日本沼虾增重率(WGR)和特定生长率(SGR)随饲料脂肪酸比值的增加先升后降,D3组最高且显著高于D1组。饲料n-3/n-6脂肪酸比值对虾体粗脂肪(CF)和粗蛋白(CP)影响显著,D4组虾体粗脂肪显著高于其他各组;D3组虾体粗蛋白显著高于D2、D4和D5组。虾体肌肉脂肪酸比值受饲料脂肪酸比值的影响,肌肉中n-3/n-6脂肪酸比值与饲料中n-3/n-6脂肪酸比值存在显著的正相关关系。血清超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)在D5组达到最高且显著高于D1、D2和D3组,但与D4组差异不显著;D3组谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)最高且显著高于其他各组;D5组血清丙二醛(MDA)含量显著高于D1和D3组。饲料脂肪酸比值对日本沼虾肝胰腺抗氧化基因表达影响显著,D4组Hsp60表达量最高且显著高于D5组,但与D1、D2和D3组差异不显著;D2组Hsp70和Toll表达量最高且显著高于其他各组;D5组Myd88表达量最高且显著高于其他各组。综上所述,饲料中n-3/n-6脂肪酸比值为1.02～2.20,可以显著提高日本沼虾的生长性能和非特异性免疫力。     

Effects of dietary lipid levels on the growth,fatty acid profile and fecundity in the oriental river prawn,Macrobrachium nipponense

An 8‐week feeding trial was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary lipid levels on growth performance, fatty acid profile and fecundity in the oriental river prawn Macrobrachium nipponense. Five isonitrogenous experimental diets were formulated with graded lipid levels [A (5.02%), B (5.98%), C (6.91%), D (7.91%) and E (8.89%) respectively]. The results indicated that the values of body weight gain, specific growth rate, protein efficiency ratio and protein retention presented a similar trend of increasing first and then decreased with increasing dietary lipid levels. Furthermore, prawns fed diets containing 6.91% lipid showed the best values on these parameters among all the treatments. EPA, DHA and n‐3/n‐6PUFA contents showed associated increasing with the increase in lipid deposition of prawn muscle. The activities of hepatopancreatic amylase, protease and lipase were also significantly (p < .05) improved by dietary 6.91% lipid. Increasing dietary lipid levels could not suppress early maturation with no differences detected in berried females throughout the feeding trial. Significant lower relative fecundity may contribute to describing the dietary moderate lipid level (6.91%) could promote the growth of spawners and decrease spawning quantity. The recommendation dietary lipid requirement, estimated by the broken‐line model based on specific growth rate against dietary lipid levels, was 7.19% of the dry matter for M. nipponense.