Agricultural injuries among operation household members: RRIS-II 1999

The purpose of this study was to determine the magnitude and consequences of agricultural injuries, and to reveal potential risk factors among agricultural household members. The Regional Rural Injury Study (RRIS-II) collected injury and exposure data on agricultural households of 16,538 people in Minnesota, Wisconsin, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska for each six-month period of 1999. Adjusted injury rates, consequences, and potential risk factors were identified through analyses. Selection of variables for multivariate analyses was based on a causal model. Injuries reported here occurred while the individuals were involved in activities associated with their own farm or ranch, unless otherwise stated. Estimates of injury rates and the effects of various exposures were derived by Poisson and logistic regression. These models accounted for correlation within both subject and household, and were adjusted for non-response. The rate of agricultural injury to household members on their own operation was 74.5 injuries per 1,000 persons per year. Differences in rates due to age and gender diminished when rates were calculated according to hours worked. Although only 5% of injured persons required in-patient hospitalization, 28% required emergency department treatment, and 84% required some type of professional health care. Moreover, 47% of all injuries required time off from agricultural work, and 7% required time off from non-agricultural work. In multivariate analyses, decreased risks were associated with Minnesota, and increased risks were identified for those with prior injuries and for males.This study provides a basis for further research on agricultural injuries and their prevention.     

Mortality and morbidity in agriculture in the United States

This article summarizes the trends in agricultural injuries and illnesses in the past decade, as well as the needs for surveillance in the future. Agriculture is one of the most hazardous industries in the U.S. The fatality rate in agriculture remained high (about 22/100,000 workers) through the 1990s. and tractors remained the leading source of death, causing approximately 300 fatalities each year. Non-fatal injuries and illnesses decreased in the employed agricultural worker population. There are no adequate injury and illness data for self-employed farmers and family members to show trends over time. The reported injury rates have been 0.5 to 16.6/100 workers, based on the source of information. Many studies have shown high rates of respiratory and musculoskeletal symptoms, hearing loss, and skin disorders in agriculture. The overall cancer rate is lower; however, certain cancers are elevated in farmers. Surveillance information has not improved significantly in the past decade; however, many studies have provided more insight into the prevalence, incidence, and risk factors for injury and illness. Further efforts are needed to better define the populations at risk, including farmers and ranchers, family members, workers, migrant and seasonal workers, and others exposed to farm hazards. Fatalities are well documented, and it is important to continue existing surveillance in the future. Surveillance systems should be developed to collect information on agriculture-related non-fatal injuries and illnesses.     

Nonfatal occupational injury among California farm operators

We conducted a population-based telephone survey addressing farm-work-related (FWR) injuries among California farm operators. Of 1947 participants (80.4% response), 135 farm operators reported 160 FWR injuries in the preceding year, yielding a one-year cumulative incidence for any FWR injury of 6.9% (95% CI 5.8%-8.2%), or a mean 8.2 FWR injuries per 100 farmers in the preceding year (95% CI 6.8-9.7). Multiple injury events in the same individual occurred more frequently than predicted by chance. Sprains and strains (29.4%) were the most frequently reported injury and predominantly involved the back. Overexertion represented the most frequent external cause (24.2%), followed by machinery (14.3%), falls (13.0%), and animals (12.4%). Factors associated with FWR injury included white ethnicity (OR 3.19; 95% CI 1.38-7.36), increased annual hours worked on the farm, low levels of administrative work, and increased percentage of time working with livestock. FWR injury experience of California farm operators is comparable with that reported for other agricultural populations. Above-expected frequency of multiple injuries supports involvement of personal or environmental risk factors. Preventive efforts should focus on higher-risk groups and preventing overexertion and muscle strain and injury related to machinery, falls, and animals, especially livestock.     

Risk factors for agricultural injury: a case-control analysis of Iowa farmers in the Agricultural Health Study

The purpose of this case-control study nested in the Agricultural Health Study was to assess risk factors for agricultural injury among a large group of Iowa farmers. A questionnaire sent to 6,999 farmers identified 431 cases who had a farm work-related injury requiring medical advice/treatment in the previous year and 473 controls who had no injury in the previous year. We assessed several potential risk factors for injury. A multiple logistic regression analysis showed significant associations between farm work-related injury and weekly farming work hours (> or = 50 hours/week) (OR = 1.65; 95% CI = 1.23-2.21), the presence of large livestock (OR = 1.77; 95% CI = 1.24-2.51), education beyond high school (OR = 1.61; 95% CI = 1.21-2.12), regular medication use (OR = 1.44; 95% CI = 1.04-1.96), wearing a hearing aid (OR = 2.36; 95% CI = 1.07-5.20), and younger age. These results confirm the importance of risk factors identified in previous analytic studies and suggest directions for future research in preventive intervention strategies to reduce farm work-related injuries.     

Safety assessments of agricultural machinery in Iran

Serious agriculture-related accidents are increasing in Iran, and this has come to the attention of authorities and planners. Due to the lack of data for this region of the world, research was conducted in different states of Iran to assess the most common causes of agriculture-related injuries. The relevant factors were divided into the three groups: personal, mechanical, and environmental. The major personal factors were education level, age, experience, injured limb, hospitalization period, gender, injury level, training, working hours, and insurance. The mechanical factors were machine type, machine part, mechanism of injury, machine's effective life, work activity at the time of injury, safety equipment, and insurance. The environmental factors were time of incident, geographical conditions of the accident location, and the time lapse between the accident and arrival at the hospital. The interactions between the various factors were also analyzed. All data were collected directly from farmers or their relatives. Data collection efforts were led by an official from the nearest health center or the local government agricultural office. The results indicated that 53% of injuries were related to personal factors, and 40% were related to the combination of personal and mechanical factors. The results confirmed that tractors and rotating parts were associated with the highest percentage of injuries in machine-related accidents. Lack of safety equipment and working beyond effective machine life was also observed in most cases. Personal factors need to be carefully considered in this region; insufficient levels of education and training were the main personal factors related to agricultural accidents. The results suggest that experience without training does not prevent injury, as more than 80% of injuries occurred to individuals with no training. Statistical analysis confirmed a significant effect of safety equipment and training on injuries. This study showed that agricultural injuries were severe in 60% of cases.     

Analysis of 151 agricultural driveline-related incidents resulting in fatal and non-fatal injuries to U.S. children and adolescents under age 18 from 1970 through 2004

Agricultural driveline-related incidents have been identified as an important cause of farm-related injury resulting in death and permanently disabling conditions to children and adolescents. A database of driveline-related injuries, including both PTO drivelines and secondary shafts and drivelines on agricultural equipment, developed at Purdue University was mined to identify all cases involving children and adolescents under age 18 who had been involved in a driveline-related incident from 1970 through 2004. Although these incidents did not account for a high percentage of all childhood farm-related injuries, this age group was found to make up nearly one in four documented agricultural driveline incidents. Of the 685 cases in the database with known ages, 151 were identified as youth under age 18. Findings indicated that these incidents often resulted in catastrophic injuries including amputation, spinal cord injuries, and compound bone fractures. Over the period studied, the trend in documented cases is declining, with recent years reporting below the yearly average and 2004 reporting no fatalities. Youth, primarily males, age 13 had the highest frequency of incidents, and over 50% of all cases occurred to youth ages 12 to 17. Fall was identified as the season with the most reported incidents. Amputations were documented in nearly 50% of all cases, and augers, elevators, and conveyors were the machines most frequently identified as being involved in the incident. Recommendations and strategies that specifically target the childhood injury problem related to agricultural drivelines are provided.     

Expected injury cost indices on Finnish farms

Annually, more than 6000 work-related injuries occur on Finnish farms. One-fourth of these injuries are classified as severe, resulting in considerable economic losses to agricultural enterprises and the national economy. The injury rate among farmers is more than twice that among all employees on average. This study aimed to identify the risk factors that should be considered when targeting interventions, thus improving their cost-effectiveness. The expected injury cost (EIC) risk index method, which combines the probability of injuries with their severity and costs, was implemented. The potential risk factors included the type of agricultural operation, worker characteristics (gender, age), agricultural work tasks performed, and the geographical location of the farm enterprise. Crop production emerged as the type of agricultural operation with the highest risk index (1.12). The lowest risk index was in sheep and goat husbandry operations (0.35). The risk index was higher for men compared to women (1.11 vs. 0.77). The highest risk age group was farmers from 55 to 59 years of age (1.36). Farmers under 40 (0.17 to 0.89) and over 65 years old (0.70) had the lowest injury risks. No evidence was found that dangerous regions are concentrated in certain geographical parts of the country. The most common agricultural work tasks in which injuries occurred were the repair and maintenance of machinery and equipment, the transportation and relocation of animals, and milking. These accounted for more than one-third of all compensated work injuries in 2005. The identified risk factors could be considered when setting priorities in injury prevention and resource allocation.     

Eye injury in migrant farm workers and suggested hazard controls

The eyes are a common site of injury in agricultural operations. Identification of the cause of injury is important to inform preventive interventions. The objective of this study was to describe the hazards and mechanisms of acute traumatic injury to the eyes of agricultural workers who are hired in farming operations on a seasonal basis. A review of the literature was performed to summarize the mechanisms of eye injuries in agriculture. Field observations and informal interviews were performed to verify the literature and to determine whether there are eye hazards for farm workers that have not been reported in the literature. Additional mechanisms of injury were elicited, and suggested methods of injury prevention are presented here.     

Assessment of the condition of Iowa augers, auger-related injuries, and farmers' perceptions about auger-related injuries

This study provides an insight into auger-related injuries, Iowa farmers' perceptions of auger-related injuries and the condition of augers used in Iowa agriculture. Specific auger-related injury data (437 records) from the Iowa Department of Public Health (IDPH) was examined and interpreted. The most likely body part injured was the finger and 11:00 A.M., 3:00 P.M., and 5:00 P.M. were the times of the day with the highest number of injuries reported. In addition, a survey was administered to 400 farmers to ascertain their awareness of auger-related injuries and to determine the condition of their augers. Farmers' perceptions of what body part is most likely to be injured by an auger and the level of severity expected from those injuries coincided with injury records from 1993 to 1997. A total 34% of the primary and secondary augers reported were unshielded or without guarding. This assessment provides insight for development of intervention countermeasures to reduce auger-related injuries.     

Agricultural injuries in Central India: nature,magnitude, and economic impact

A study was carried out in Madhya Pradesh (Central India) to collect data on injury-causing agricultural incidents during the period 1995-1999. The overall incidence rate was 1.25/1000 workers/year. About 9.2% of the incidents were fatal, and most of the fatal incidents were due to tractors and snakebites (42.9% each). About 77.6% of all incidents were due to farm machinery, 11.8% were due to hand tools, and the remaining 10.6% were due to other sources like snakes, wells, etc. Data on 1,911 incidents reported in 10 leading newspapers published during the five-year period (1995-1999) from different regions of the state were also collected and analyzed, which indicated that only major or roadside agricultural incidents were reported in newspapers. Based on the survey data, it was estimated that in the year 2000 there would have been about 17,480 agricultural incidents in Madhya Pradesh, causing death to about 2,050 workers and injuries to about 16,770 workers, including amputations of limbs, burns, cuts, etc. Total monetary loss due to agricultural injuries in the state of Madhya Pradesh has been estimated as US $27 million/year.     

Agroterrorism: a mixed methods study examining the attitudes and perceptions of Utah producers

Geographic disbursement, unsecured environments, and the concentration and commingling of agricultural products make agriculture a vulnerable target for a terrorist attack. To counter an act of agroterrorism, efforts are needed at the organism level, the farm level, the agricultural sector level, and the national level. Producers and the measures they take are essential in countering an attack at the farm level. However, producers may question the need for security measures, especially if they feel that their farm or ranch is an unlikely target. The attitudes and perceptions of Utah agricultural producers towards agroterrorism were examined in a mixed methods study using a QUAN-QUAL model. Twenty-five producers were purposefully selected to provide a cross-section of Utah agriculture. All participants filled out a questionnaire followed by a face-to-face interview in which they were asked to rate their level of concern about an act of agroterrorism at the farm, state, and national level. They were also asked about any security measures that they had taken and why, the identification of highly transmissible diseases, and their willingness to implement security measures. Producers were most concerned about an act of agroterrorism at the national level and least concerned about an act of agroterrorism occurring on their farm or ranch. Although many of the producers had implemented some security measures within the last year, most actions were in response to vandalism. More efforts are needed to educate Utah producers regarding highly transmissible diseases and their symptoms.     

Projected incidence and cost of tractor overturn-related injuries in the United States

In 2004, the Agricultural Safety and Health Centers, supported by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, launched an initiative to conduct research on the consequences of and approaches to control of agricultural tractor-related injuries. The most significant cause of fatal injuries is associated with tractor overturns, and a recognized intervention to control these injuries is equipping the tractor with a rollover protective structure (ROPS). The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of tractor-related fatal and nonfatal injuries and their social costs. Based upon the annual average incidence of 125 tractor-overturn-related fatalities in the U.S. for the period 1992 to 2002, an analysis was conducted of injuries over the 25-year period 1997 to 2021. Using the number of fatalities as an index value, the analysis found that in 1997, there were a total of 2,412 tractor overturns. These overturns were associated with 125 deaths and 573 nonfatal injuries requiring at least outpatient treatment. Compared to ROPS-equipped tractors, 123 (98.6%) deaths and 543 (95%) of nonfatal injuries were associated with non-ROPS tractor overturns. The undiscounted social cost of these injuries totaled $1.5 billion in 2006 dollars for the 25-year period when using cost factors for the agricultural population. When discounted at 3%, this total was $1.1 billion, and when discounted at 5%, it was $0.9 billion. In an alternative analysis, when using cost factors for all occupations including agriculture, the undiscounted social cost totaled $2.9 billion, $2.1 billion when discounted at 3%, and $1.7 billion discounted at 5% for the 25-year period. Non-ROPS tractors as compared to ROPS-equipped tractors account for at least 97% of the costs, no matter the discount rate or cost factors used.     

Effects of haying and agricultural practices on a declining species: The North American wood turtle, Glyptemys insculpta

In North America, the spatio-temporal scale of deforestation has resulted in a 94% decrease in temperate forests within 360 years. Despite the enormous scale of this disturbance, agriculture is so pervasive in modern society that its impacts are highly underappreciated. We investigated the impact of current agricultural practices on a disturbance-dependent species in southern Québec, Canada. Of 30 wood turtles (Glyptemys insculpta) followed via radio-telemetry, 20% died as a result of agricultural activities. Anthropogenic mortality estimates for adults and juveniles in 1998 were 0.10 and 0.18, respectively. For 1999, these values were 0.13 and 0.17, respectively. Of those turtles that survived, many had injuries inflicted by agricultural machinery. Sub-lethal mutilation rates for adults were 90 ± 3% in both years, whereas the maximum frequency for juveniles was 57%. A Carapace Mutilation Index was derived to quantify the distribution and severity of injuries observed. Only male and juvenile Carapace Mutilation Index values differed significantly. Adults had significantly more carapace injuries and limb amputations on their right sides. This bilateral asymmetry of injuries resulted from of a combination of turtle flight behavior and traditional harvesting practices. We reiterate the recommendations of forage researchers: setting the cutting height of disc mowers to 100 mm increases harvest yields, reduces wear on machinery, and decreases soil erosion. A by-product of such a change in cutting height is that turtle mortality and injury rates should be reduced, as wood turtle carapace height is <87 mm. Without changes in agricultural practices, this population will be extirpated.     

Effect of age on hospitalized machine-related farm injuries among the Saskatchewan farm population

Machinery-related injuries are the leading cause of fatal and hospitalized injuries on Canadian farms. In Saskatchewan, the proportion of all farm injuries related to farm machinery exceeds that reported for all of Canada. This project examined the relationship between age and various factors associated with farm machine-related injuries in Saskatchewan. A retrospective review of hospital discharge data from the administrative data set of Saskatchewan Health was conducted using external cause of injury codes to identify cases of farm machinery injury that occurred in Saskatchewan during the period April 1, 1990, to March 31, 2000. Log linear estimates of association of various factors in four age groups were derived. There were 1,493 hospitalizations attributed to farm machinery-related injuries. Among the injured cohort, age was a predictor of the rate of injury. Significant association for nature of injury, mechanism of injury, and type of machine varied by age group. These data provide insights for a case-control study of farm machinery-related injuries with the objective of determining personal, environmental, and machine-related factors that are responsible for this serious public health issue.     

A community-based telephone survey of work and injuries in teenage agricultural workers

In order to estimate the one-year cumulative incidence of work-related injuries in teenage agricultural workers and to characterize the patterns and types of agricultural work performed by teenagers, we performed a community-based random-digit dialing telephone survey. We used a sampling frame of farm and non-farm households to access information on teenage agricultural workers. An agricultural community in eastern Washington State was selected due to the high number of teenage youth and its agricultural economy. Teenage agricultural workers who worked for an agricultural business owned by one of their family members were more likely to work a greater number of seasons, work fewer hours per week, perform tasks involving driving, animal care, and mechanic work, and were less likely to be seasonal workers or work in the harvest than teenagers who did not work for a family member. A similar pattern of work differences was seen when comparing non-Hispanic to Hispanic agricultural workers. Teenagers working for a family member in agriculture had a higher injury rate than teenagers working for an agricultural business not owned by a family member. The injury rate among Hispanic teenage agricultural workers was also higher than that of non-Hispanics.     

Health risk behaviors and work injury among hispanic adolescents and farmworkers

Adolescents may engage in health risk behaviors that increase their likelihood of injury. Employment places adolescents at risk of work-related injuries. This study responds to the paucity of data on the relationship between adolescent health risk behaviors and work-related injury. This cross-sectional study included the administration of anonymous surveys to ninth graders (n=4914) who attended high schools in south Texas. An aggregate risk score (ARS) was developed based on health risk behaviors. The ARS was analyzed as an outcome using linear regression. Associations between health risk behaviors and work-related injury were assessed with logistic regression. Of the respondents, 19% reported they had a job, and 14% reported that they had been employed in farmwork. Farmwork-related injury was reported by 9% of adolescents, and 12% reported other work-related injury. Mean ARS scores were significantly higher (p < 0.05) for both male and female adolescents who reported a work-related injury compared to nonworking adolescents, and for males who had done migrant farmwork compared to all other adolescent males. The ARS increased as hours worked per week increased. After controlling for confounding factors, a statistically significant association was found between ARS and non-farmwork, work-related injury, but not between ARS and farmwork-related injury. Farmworkers with high ARS were more likely to report non-farmwork, work-related injuries. The predictors of work-related injury in the adolescent groups, particularly for farmworkers and migrants who are under additional stress, remain an important occupational health area to be addressed.     

Nonfatal injuries to household youth on racial minority-operated farms in the U.S., 2000

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) estimated that 32,808 nonfatal injuries occurred to youth less than 20 years of age on U.S. farms during 1998. These data, however, do not allow for the identification of minority farm operators. The Minority Farm Operator Childhood Agricultural Injury Survey (M-CAIS) was conducted to provide an overview of the number of youth on minority-operated farms and their associated farm-related injuries during 2000. M-CAIS was conducted by the USDA for NIOSH through a telephone survey of 49,270 minority-operated farms identified in the 1997 Census of Agriculture. These minority-operated farms included four racial categories (black, Asian, Native American, and other) and operators of Hispanic ethnicity. This study included only racial minority-operated farms for analysis, white Hispanic farms were excluded. In 2000, there were an estimated 28,577 youth living on U.S. farms operated by racial minorities. In that year, these youth sustained an estimated 348 nonfatal injuries. Males accounted for 245 (70%) of the injuries to household youth. The majority of all injuries to household youth (247, 71%) occurred on livestock operations. Native American household youth accounted for both the largest number of injuries (177) and the highest rate of injury (24.0/1,000 household youth) on these farms. M-CAIS data indicated significant variation in injury rates among specific racial categories. Results of the M-CAIS suggest the need for prevention strategies to address issues found within these specific sub-populations of the agricultural community.     

除氮生物反应器净化农田排水的研究及应用潜力分析

农田排水氮素输出是造成水环境污染的重要原因。近年来涌现的生物反应器除氮技术通过在排水末端增设固体碳源装置,将农田排水部分或全部导入后,使其中的硝态氮通过反硝化反应得到去除。该文回顾了国际上现有生物反应器净化农田排水的研究进展,并分析了农田生物反应器在中国南方湿润区应用的潜力。现有研究结果表明,除氮生物反应器可以有效净化排水水质,平均每年可降低23%～98%的氮素负荷;是一种占地面积少且水质净化效率高的农田控污措施。生物反应器的除氮效果与农田排水过程密切相关,并受到介质特性、入流、出流条件以及环境因子等的影响。中国南方平原作物生长及排水过程相对集中,气象等环境条件非常适于生物反应器的反硝化反应。如何因地制宜确定反应器安装位置与设计尺寸,筛选填料介质,并通过对排水过程的调控来优化生物反应器的除氮效果是需要进一步研究的问题。生物反应器系统后期管理与内部反应动态监测是保证系统正常运行的重要手段。利用生物反应器来净化农田排水具有良好的应用前景,该文可为推动生物反应器在中国的应用研究以及排水污染治理提供理论依据与技术支撑。