China's contribution to urban forestry

This commentary reviews the remarkable contributions made in China to the development of urban forests and to research on urban forests. It points out the significance of the Forest Law of the People's Republic of China (adopted in 1984) to the establishment of urban forests in China. Unique Chinese concepts such as Sponge Cities and Forest Cities are reviewed. Examples of the contributions of Chinese scholars to our knowledgeof urban forestry are presented.     

From the Russian/Soviet landscape concept to the geosystem approach to integrative environmental studies in an international context

Landscape Ecology - The geosystem paradigm emerged in the USSR in the 1960s and offered improved operational tools for landscape assessment. However, its contributions to integrative environmental...     

Spatial relationship between biodiversity and geodiversity across a gradient of land-use intensity in high-latitude landscapes

Context

‘Conserving Nature’s stage’ has been advanced as an important conservation principle because of known links between biodiversity and abiotic environmental diversity, especially in sensitive high-latitude environments and at the landscape scale. However these links have not been examined across gradients of human impact on the landscape.

Objectives

To (1) analyze the relationships between land-use intensity and both landscape-scale biodiversity and geodiversity, and (2) assess the contributions of geodiversity, climate and spatial variables to explaining vascular plant species richness in landscapes of low, moderate and high human impact.

Methods

We used generalized additive models (GAMs) to analyze relationships between land-use intensity and both geodiversity (geological, geomorphological and hydrological richness) and plant species richness in 6191 1-km² grid squares across Finland. We used linear regression-based variation partitioning (VP) to assess contributions of climate, geodiversity and spatial variable groups to accounting for spatial variation in species richness.

Results

In GAMs, geodiversity correlated negatively, and plant species richness positively, with land-use intensity. Both relationships were non-linear. In VP, geodiversity best accounted for species richness in areas of moderate to high human impact. These overall contributions were mainly due to variation explained jointly with climate, which dominated the models. Independent geodiversity contributions were highest in pristine environments, but low throughout.

Conclusions

Human action increases biodiversity but may reduce geodiversity, at landscape scale in high-latitude environments. Better understanding of the connections between biodiversity and abiotic environment along changing land-use gradients is essential in developing sustainable measures to conserve biodiversity under global change.

     

Reviewing eight years of Urban Forestry & Urban Greening: Taking stock, looking ahead

Since its launch in 2002, the journal Urban Forestry & Urban Greening (UFUG) has welcomed research from a range of disciplines and perspectives, with the aim of enlarging the body of knowledge on topics related to use, planning, design, values, and establishment of urban and peri-urban woody and non-woody vegetation. Here, we present a review of all scientific contributions published in the journal's first eight volumes (159 in all), and provide suggestions for improving the future content of UFUG. A framework for review was developed based on the journal's Aims and Scope, which set out the journal's ambitions related to, e.g. scientific diversity and international scope. The journal's achievements until now were assessed by analysing all scientific contributions for type of paper, type of green space, research theme, type of science, research method(s), and nationality of first author.Our review shows that the large majority of the contributions have been research papers. Regarding type of green space studied or considered, the overall green structure, woodland, as well as trees have been well covered, with parks having been studied much less. When looking at research themes, UFUG's envisaged variety of topics is evident. The physicality of green space, green space management, and the experience of green space have been given most attention, with less attention for valuation and governance aspects. Most UFUG contributions have been rooted in the social or natural sciences, with about one fifth of all papers involving more than one discipline, and the humanities being almost absent. Scientific diversity can also be seen from the wide range of research methods applied. The journal lives up to its international scope, with a large number of countries present. However, most first authors have been based in Europe and North America, with the USA and Scandinavia being particularly dominant.For the further development of the fields of urban forestry and urban greening, it is important that UFUG helps foster scientific debate and advancement. This will require greater focus on review papers, meta-studies, short communications, and on theoretical and methodological issues in general. Thematically, several relevant topics within urban forestry and urban greening, such as organisational aspects of green space management, could be given more attention. Also, normative issues such as the common understanding of ‘green’ as something inherently ‘good’ need to be addressed more critically.     

Toward estimating the value of stewardship volunteers: A cost-based valuation approach in King County,Washington, USA

Urban forestry professionals are increasingly challenged to find cost-effective strategies for resource conservation and management. Many organizations partner with citizen groups to host events that enlist volunteers to perform stewardship tasks like tree planting and trail maintenance. These volunteer programs incur costs to both the managing agency and partners, such as staffing, tools, and transportation. Volunteers contribute uncompensated time and expertise. Little is known about these contributions, yet citizen stewards and host groups represent an important human dimension of urban forest management. Using a survey administered to volunteers and host organizations at restoration events in King County Parks, WA, USA, we developed a cost-based approach to estimate the value of stewardship activities that occurred in the spring field season of 2011. Expenditures included volunteer and event host time and direct cost of traveling to and from events, on-site labor, equipment, and preparation costs. Results suggest that contributions made by volunteers and hosts are significant; the combined costs associated with the 17 sampled events was approximately $35,700. These efforts represent a small subset of the more than 1000 volunteer environmental stewardship activities that take place annually in King County.     

Nature orientation and opportunity: Who values and who has opportunity for satisfactory green spaces in proximity to their place of residence

Urban green spaces (UGS) provide important contributions to people. Yet, UGS planning requires better understanding of by whom and where such contributions are being valued or missed. Based on a mixed-methods online survey and choice experiment with residents of Wellington in Aotearoa New Zealand, we analyse how much and why residents value UGS and their benefits when deciding where to live and how socio-economic and spatial factors might impact nature orientation and opportunity for satisfactory local UGS. We find that local UGS are an important residential choice criteria for the majority of respondents, especially in the context of Wellington’s intensification plans. However, we show that socio-economic and spatial factors significantly impact whether someone values and is satisfied with UGS in proximity to their place of residence. Our findings call for careful scoping of a city’s population and spatial structure when planning for equitable UGS provision. More holistic approaches to green space planning are needed to address contextualities and the complex interdependencies between nature orientation and opportunity and to plan for green space distributions that provide opportunities now and help shaping nature orientation for future generations.     

Allerton Park 1983: the beginnings of a paradigm for landscape ecology?

In 1983, a group of incipient landscape ecologists met to discuss the nature and future directions for landscape ecology. The themes emerging from this conference—movement of materials, organisms, and energy through a landscape; the genesis of landscape patterns; the effects of landscape structure on the spread of disturbances; and the potential contributions of landscape ecology to resource management—established a foundation for the development of landscape ecology in North America over the following decades. I discuss these contributions in the light of where landscape ecology is today.

Ecological contributions to human health in cities

Context

Ecological research, from organismal to global scales and spanning terrestrial, hydrologic, and atmospheric domains, can contribute more to reducing health vulnerabilities. At the same, ecological research directed to health vulnerabilities provides a problem-based unifying framework for urban ecologists.

Objective

Provide a framework for expanding ecological research to address human health vulnerabilities in cities.

Methods

I pose an urban ecology of human health framework that considers how the ecological contributions to health risks and benefits are driven by interacting influences of the environment, active management, and historical legacies in the context of ecological self-organization. The ecology of health framework is explored for contrasting examples including heat, vector borne diseases, pollution, and accessible greenspace both individually and in a multifunctional landscape perspective.

Results

Urban ecological processes affect human health vulnerability through contributions to multiple hazard and well-being pathways. The resulting multifunctional landscape of health vulnerability features prominent hotspots and regional injustices. A path forward to increase knowledge of the ecological contributions to health vulnerabilities includes increased participation in in interdisciplinary teams and applications of high resolution environmental sensing and modeling.

Conclusions

Research and management from a systems and landscape perspective of ecological processes is poised to help reduce urban health vulnerability and provide a better understanding of ecological dynamics in the Anthropocene.

     

Residential runoff – The role of spatial density and surface cover,with a case study in the Höjeå river catchment,southern Sweden

Depending on the spatial density of built cover and location within a catchment, residential areas make varying contributions to surface runoff throughout different rainfall events. This study examined these contributions and the associated effect of different surface covers and sustainable drainage systems on runoff generation. The Soil Conservation Service curve number (SCS-CN) method was applied to analyse urban development in the Höjeå river catchment in southern Sweden.The results indicated that identical amounts of surface runoff are generated by low-density residential areas on heavy clay soils and high-density residential areas on sandy soils. However, increasing the density of built-up areas on sandy soils is likely to be more disruptive to the hydrological balance and to generate a greatly increasing difference in runoff as building density and impermeable surface area increase. A similar pattern is likely to occur if rainfall intensity increases. It may therefore be appropriate to apply different planning considerations to residential developments depending on the existing soil group, e.g. conserving existing vegetated surfaces on sandy soil and incorporating permeable paving materials and sub-surface infiltration beds in development on clayey soils. Increased area of impermeable surface cover will increase surface runoff in all residential areas, irrespective of building density, soil group and rainfall intensity. However, adapting a systems approach in combining vegetative structures and permeable paving materials with subsurface infiltration beds can help mitigate the impact of surface runoff, particularly in urban developments on clay-rich soils.     

A precipitation-weighted landscape structure model to predict potential pollution contributions at watershed scales

Context

The impact of landscape structure—often described by landscape composition and configuration—on ecological processes is well-known. Appropriately quantifying landscape structure that critically affect nutrient processes within watersheds remains challenging.

Objective

A precipitation-weighted landscape structure model (LSM) was developed to predict nutrient concentrations at a large number of watersheds.

Methods

The LSM was developed based on the landscape location features including topography and precipitation within the watershed. The inequality function of Lorenz curve was used to quantify the spatial structure of different landscape types. The LSM was fitted and validated using the measurements of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) in 132 watersheds. Regression models predicted the spatial patterns of TN and TP concentrations in 1578 watersheds of the Haihe River Basin, China.

Results

(1) Predictive models can explain 64 and 52% of the variation in total TN and TP, respectively. (2) Agricultural and residential lands served as nutrient sources. The contributions of agricultural land were 18 and 21% while those of residential land were 46 and 38% to TN and TP concentrations, respectively. (3) Grassland and forest land were nutrient sinks. Grassland had major contributions of 22 and 30% to TN and TP concentrations, respectively. The contributions of forest land were 7 and 11% to TN and TP concentrations, respectively.

Conclusions

The LSM focuses on the nutrient processes and is feasible to implement across a large number of watersheds. This study provides useful implications for quantifying landscape structure and predicting potential pollution under different landscape scenarios.

     

Relating tradable credits for biodiversity to sustainability criteria in a dynamic landscape

Tradable biodiversity credit systems provide flexible means to resolve conflicts between development and conservation land-use options for habitats occupied by threatened or endangered species. We describe an approach to incorporate the influence of habitat fragmentation into the conservation value of tradable credits. Habitat fragmentation decreases gene flow, increases rates of genetic drift and inbreeding, and increases probabilities of patch extinction. Importantly, tradable credit systems will change the level of fragmentation over time for small and/or declining populations. We apply landscape equivalency analysis (LEA), a generalizable, landscape-scale accounting system that assigns conservation value to habitat patches based on patch contributions to abundance and genetic variance at landscape scales. By evaluating habitat trades using two models that vary the relationship between dispersal behaviors and landscape patterns, we show that LEA provides a novel method for limiting access to habitat at the landscape-scale, recognizing that the appropriate amount of migration needed to supplement patch recruitment and to offset drift and inbreeding will vary as landscape pattern changes over time. We also found that decisions based on probabilities of persistence alone would ignore changes in migration, genetic drift, and patch extinction that result from habitat trades. The general principle of LEA is that habitat patches traded should make at least equivalent contributions to rates of recruitment and migration estimated at a landscape scale. Traditional approaches for assessing the “take” and “jeopardy” standards under the Endangered Species Act based on changes in abundance and probability of persistence may be inadequate to prevent trades that increase fragmentation.     

中国食用菌出口发展方向及产业结构优化

面对食用菌产业快速发展中盲从性问题出现,使得食用菌产业缺乏系统的战略规划,出口能力较弱的问题,从价值链、组织链、物流链和信息链等4个视角为其提供产业结构优化对策,助力食用菌产业发展。     

乡村振兴视域下食用菌产业发展的法律规范化分析

在乡村振兴战略实施中,食用菌产业发展已成为农村经济发展的重要来源之一,但其发展具有特殊性。为保障食用菌产业健康可持续发展,从法律角度出发提出要进一步完善食用菌产业相关的法律规范制度,明确食用菌产品生产、销售等环节的标准和行业规范,如此才能为食用菌产业的可持续发展提供良好的制度保障。     

干旱区葡萄节水栽培技术研究进展

文章综述了干旱区葡萄节水栽培的研究进展与发展趋势。葡萄节水栽培是传统的节水农业技术与生物、计算机模拟、电子信息、高分子材料等高新技术结合的产物,具有多学科相互交叉、各种单项技术互相渗透的明显特征。它以重大前沿性技术研究成果为基础,研发葡萄节水关键技术,探索建立适合我国国情的干旱区葡萄节水栽培技术体系。可以预测,现代节水技术研究将对干旱区葡萄产业带来的突破与贡献。     

Inequity in nature’s contributions to people in Ōtautahi/ Christchurch: A low-density post-earthquake city

Nature’s contributions to people (NCP) include the regulating, material, and non-material benefits of urban vegetation that improve well-being. It is increasingly important to plan cities that provide multiple types of NCP equitably to all residents of the city. However, due to historical legacies and planning policies, it is common for the most socially and economically vulnerable urban residents to suffer reduced access to the benefits of urban ecosystems. Previous studies of urban NCP have drawn attention to inequity in one or several types of NCP, but few have analysed a broad range. Here we analysed inequity in nine diverse forms of urban NCP across an index of economic and social vulnerability designed specifically to characterise vulnerability to environmental pressures. Furthermore, we used spatial analysis to map co-variance in vulnerability and a composite indicator of urban NCP, thus highlighting priority regions for future investments in green infrastructure. We applied this approach to the city of Christchurch/ Ōtautahi in Aotearoa/ New Zealand, which provides a valuable case study due to its multicultural population and recent history of widespread damage and regeneration following the 2011 earthquake. Overall, the distribution of urban NCP is inequitable to the disadvantage of more vulnerable residents. Residents of more vulnerable neighbourhoods experienced reduced provision of carbon stock, runoff retention, air quality enhancement, shade, educational green space, public outdoor space accessibility, private green space, and bird biodiversity contributions. Conversely, more vulnerable neighbourhoods had greater provision of erosion mitigation (although negligible in magnitude). The wide range of indicators used and assessed in response to vulnerability, coupled with an assessment of the type of vegetation cover (i.e. grass, tall trees) provides greater insights into how inequities in urban NCP can be addressed in future redevelopment.     

The representation of landscapes in global scale assessments of environmental change

Landscape ecology has provided valuable insights in the relations between spatial structure and the functioning of landscapes. However, in most global scale environmental assessments the representation of landscapes is reduced to the dominant land cover within a 0.5 degree pixel, disregarding the insights about the role of structure, pattern and composition for the functioning of the landscape. This paper discusses the contributions landscape ecology can make to global scale environmental assessments. It proposes new directions for representing landscape characteristics at broad spatial scales. A contribution of landscape ecologists to the representation of landscape characteristics in global scale assessments will foster improved information and assessments for the design of sustainable earth system governance strategies.     

Landscape services: the concept and its practical relevance

Recently, in addition to the popular concept of “ecosystem services” (ES), the term “landscape services” (LS) has come into use. We are examining the question of whether a stronger focus on LS would be useful, particularly with regard to case studies carried out in Germany. Important reasons for introducing the term LS include the prominent role of spatial aspects, the reference to landscape elements and the landscape character, and the relevance of LS for landscape planning. We found no strong arguments for replacing the concept of ES by LS; however, we do prefer a situation-related use of both concepts. We propose the following definition: Landscape services are the contributions of landscapes and landscape elements to human well-being.     

Modelling dynamics of ecosystem services basket in Mediterranean landscapes: a tool for rational management

Natural ecosystems are life-supporting systems providing diverse ecosystem services (ESs) and benefits to human societies: e.g., food and clean water, recreation opportunities or climate regulation. The contribution of natural and semi-natural ecosystems to the provision of such services depends to a large extent on vegetation structure and composition, which, in turn, change as a result of interactions between human decisions about land management, and spontaneous biological and environmental processes. Rational management of these dynamic ecosystems requires an ability to predict short- and long-term effects of management decisions on the desired ESs. The vegetation then contributes to, and modifies, the products and services obtained from the land. We applied mathematical modeling to study these complex relationships. We developed a model for a Mediterranean ecosystem which predicts the dynamics of multiple services in response to management scenarios, mediated by vegetation changes. Six representative ESs representing different groups were selected, based on available scientific information, for a detailed study: (1) density of geophytes, (2) potential contribution to honey production, (3) energy density of fleshy fruits foraged by birds, (4) forage for goats, (5) forage for cattle, and (6) carbon retention in woody plants. Mean contributions to each service by different vegetation cover types were estimated, and the overall service provided by the site was calculated as a weighted mean of these contributions. Services were measured in their appropriate units and subsequently standardized to a percentage of the maximum value observed in the study area. We attempted to combine all studied ESs, despite their different nature, into one “ESs basket”. This paper presents the dynamics of simulated vegetation composition and values of services in response to management scenarios involving grazing, fire and their combinations. Our approach can help land managers to evaluate alternative management scenarios by presenting the “services basket” obtained from the entire managed area.     

Predicting place attachment among walkers in the urban context: The role of dogs,motivations, satisfaction,past experience and setting development

Place attachment knowledge informs urban green space management to maximize positive visitor experiences. However, little is known about how place attachment differs between urban green space settings and users, particularly dog walkers or owners. This study explored place attachment and the better-known influence of variables such as motivation, satisfaction and visit frequency, as well as the understudied contributions of dog-ownership status and degree of setting development. In total, 450 on-site walkers and dog walkers in two cities and four green spaces with different levels of development were interviewed. Regression analyses revealed motivations, satisfaction and visit frequency predicted place attachment. Place attachment strength differed between walkers and dog walkers: dog walkers were more likely to have higher place identity and place dependence. Similarly, visitors to the urban green spaces with the lowest degree of development were highest on place dependence and identity. Implications and future research ideas are shared.     

Macrosystems ecology: novel methods and new understanding of multi-scale patterns and processes

As the global biomes are increasingly threatened by human activities, understanding of macroscale patterns and processes is pressingly needed for effective management and policy making. Macrosystems ecology, which studies multiscale ecological patterns and processes, has gained growing interest in the research community. However, as a relatively new field in ecology, research in macrosystems ecology is facing various challenges. In this special issue, we highlight the following two latest exciting developments in this thriving field: (1) novel tools and methods and (2) new understandings on macroscale patterns and processes. While we believe that the contributions featured in this issue provide promising advancements in macrosystems ecology, we also see multiple challenges for future research including (1) multidisciplinary approaches for long-term and multiscale studies and (2) scaling local patterns and processes to broader scales.