A social-ecological approach to land-use conflict to inform regional and conservation planning and management

Context

Conflict over land use is endemic to natural resource management given the limited availability of resources and multiple stakeholders’ interests, but there has been limited research to examine conflict from an integrative social-ecological perspective.

Objectives

We sought to determine how the potential for land use conflict—a social construct—was related (or not) to ecological systems of landscapes.

Methods

Using participatory mapping data from a regional case study in Australia, we identified the potential for land use conflict using a model that combines spatially-explicit place values with preferences for specific land uses related to development and conservation. Multiple proxies of biodiversity were used to evaluate the landscape’s ecological systems at ecosystems and species levels. Range maps were used to identify areas of high species diversity value using the conservation planning software Zonation.

Results

We spatially intersected conflict areas with landscape attributes and found the potential for conflict over conservation to be higher in coastal areas than inland areas, more likely to be located in areas with moderate vegetation cover, more concentrated in ecosystems classified as ‘No Concern’ with moderate to high native vegetation. Potential conflict over conservation was disproportionately higher in areas with higher species diversity derived from conservation modelling.

Conclusions

The social-ecological associations in conflict analysis can inform impact assessment of land use plans on biodiversity, assist development of effective approaches to reconcile conservation and other land uses, support conservation planning by identifying priorities for conflict negotiation and understanding underlying factors for conflict.

     

Urban wild food foraging locations: Understanding selection criteria to inform green space planning and management

Urban wild food foraging is increasingly attracting attention as an activity in urban green spaces that encourages urban residents’ interaction with their natural environment. However, little is known about the criteria influencing urban foragers’ selection of foraging locations that could inform urban green space management and planning to encourage urban foraging. To elicit these criteria, we conducted 21 semi-structured expert interviews with urban foraging stakeholders in Vienna, Austria, and analysed the data using qualitative content analysis. The respondents suggested 11 criteria that influence the selection of foraging locations. These are related to spatial factors, management of public urban green spaces and the green space activities of other visitors. However, the respondents reported that urban foragers do not uniformly follow these different criteria, but subjectively assess and apply them depending on the specific locations and the plant materials and mushroom species being targeted. For some foragers, even intensively managed public urban green spaces can offer certain advantages. Thus, urban residents forage in public urban green spaces that have diverse properties and management strategies. We suggest that urban foraging is best supported by biodiversity- and wilderness-friendly green space management that supports access to foraging locations, clear foraging regulations and codes of conduct, and comprehensive information about contamination for urban residents. Implementation of these suggestions would not only benefit urban foraging, but also enhance urban biodiversity and guarantee the multifunctional benefits of public urban green spaces for urban residents and urban nature.     

Landscape planning: a working method applied to a case study of soil conservation

A working method for landscape planning is proposed. There are 11 steps in this method. In step one, an issue (or set of related issues) is identified as posing a problem or an opportunity to people and/or the environment. In step two, a goal (or several goals) is established to address the problem. In steps three and four, ecological inventories and analyses are conducted at two scales, first at the regional level (drainage basins are suggested as an appropriate unit) and then at the landscape level (watersheds are recommended). These inventories and analyses consider human ecology as well as bio-physical processes. Step five involves detailed studies, such as suitability analyses, that link inventory and analysis information to the problem(s) and goal(s). In step six, concepts are developed that lead to a landscape (watershed) master plan in step seven. During step eight, the plan is explained through a systematic educational effort to the affected public. In step nine, detailed designs are developed. In step 10 the plan and designs are implemented. Step 11 involves administering and monitoring the plan. The method is explained through an example of soil conservation planning. The case study was undertaken in the Missouri Flat Creek watershed of the Palouse region in the Pacific Northwest (U.S.A.) to help achieve the goals for erosion control established by the federal Food Security Act of 1985 and state clean water legislation.     

Expanding the conservation toolbox: conservation planning of multifunctional landscapes

An area of convergence appears to be emerging between the approaches of conservation planning and the concepts of multifunctional landscapes, which if exploited correctly may assist in overcoming the resource and other constraints faced by biodiversity conservation, while at the same time furthering the aims of multifunctional landscapes to improve production abilities and overall sustainability. Using a multi-zone conservation planning approach, we explore the conservation costs, benefits to biodiversity conservation and possible ecosystem service payments associated with various land-use configurations, in the Little Karoo of South Africa, in order to develop and showcase a multifunctional landscape planning approach and its data requirements, as well as the possible cost savings to conservation agencies. The study uses four conservation planning scenarios, five land-use types, their conservation costs and biodiversity benefits, as well as possible payments from carbon sequestration and tourism. We find that the costs and biodiversity benefits associated with different land-uses varies substantially between land-uses, and also spatially within a land-use type. By incorporating this variation into a multi-zone conservation planning approach land-uses can be allocated in a way that achieves biodiversity targets while at the same time reducing costs by up to 50?% when compared with traditional binary approaches to conservation. Despite some challenges presented by cost and ecosystem service value data and the determination of land-use impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services, the ability of conservation planning approaches to reflect differential contributions of particular land-uses to biodiversity targets and ecosystem services holds much potential for conservation planning, for multifunctional landscape objectives and for growing the resources and partnerships available to the establishment of sustainable and resilient landscapes.     

Past and predicted future effects of housing growth on open space conservation opportunity areas and habitat connectivity around National Wildlife Refuges

Context

Housing growth can alter suitability of matrix habitats around protected areas, strongly affecting movements of organisms and, consequently, threatening connectivity of protected area networks.

Objectives

Our goal was to quantify distribution and growth of housing around the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wildlife Refuge System. This is important information for conservation planning, particularly given promotion of habitat connectivity as a climate change adaptation measure.

Methods

We quantified housing growth from 1940 to 2000 and projected future growth to 2030 within three distances from refuges, identifying very low housing density open space, “opportunity areas” (contiguous areas with <6.17 houses/km²), both nationally and by USFWS administrative region. Additionally, we quantified number and area of habitat corridors within these opportunity areas in 2000.

Results

Our results indicated that the number and area of open space opportunity areas generally decreased with increasing distance from refuges and with the passage of time. Furthermore, total area in habitat corridors was much lower than in opportunity areas. In addition, the number of corridors sometimes exceeded number of opportunity areas as a result of habitat fragmentation, indicating corridors are likely vulnerable to land use change. Finally, regional differences were strong and indicated some refuges may have experienced so much housing growth already that they are effectively too isolated to adapt to climate change, while others may require extensive habitat restoration work.

Conclusions

Wildlife refuges are increasingly isolated by residential housing development, potentially constraining the movement of wildlife and, therefore, their ability to adapt to a changing climate.

     

Incorporating biological information in local land-use decision making: designing a system for conservation planning

Human settlement is a formidable agent of change affecting fundamental ecological processes. Decisions governing these land-use changes occur almost exclusively at the local level and, as a result, they are made at many different locations and times. Consequently, it is difficult for ecologists to provide needed scientific support for these choices. We built an information system designed to support conservation decisions at local scales by offering data over the Internet. We collaborated with local stakeholders (e.g., developers, planners, politicians, land owners, environmental activists) to design the system. This collaboration produced several generalizations about effective design of information systems to support conservation. The most important of these is the idea that ecological data and analysis must be understood by those who will be affected by the decisions. Also, planning for conservation is a process that uses scientific data, but that ultimately depends on the expression of human values. A major challenge landscape ecologists face is to extend general landscape principles to provide specific scientific information needed for local land-use planning.     

Setting conservation priorities in cities: approaches,targets and planning units adapted to wetland biodiversity and ecosystem services

Context

Protecting wetlands in cities is challenging. A cost-effective spatial prioritization approach taking into account stakeholder motivations is needed to identify wetlands of conservation interest.

Objectives

This study aims to optimize the efficiency of a systematic conservation planning (SCP) approach to protect nine urban wetland ecosystem services (ES) and biodiversity.

Methods

First, we mapped ES supply and demand to capture their spatial variation as they occur at the wetland scale. Secondly, using wetland property value as cost data, we compared the efficiency of SCP to two multicriteria scoring approaches. Thirdly, we compared SCP alternatives by changing the planning unit scale and conservation objectives (i.e. emphasizing ES demand and focusing on the most important ES).

Results

The total cost of the scoring approach networks was minimally 13 times higher, when compared to the SCP approaches. Consequently, the scoring approaches were at least five times less efficient than SCP per unit of network area ($/m²). Decreasing the size of planning units resulted in further cost reduction, with networks that were up to 92% less costly. We also highlighted that beneficiary demand fulfillment in networks could be optimized without a loss in efficiency. Finally, SCP secured nine ES for the same expenditure as that required to protect four public safety related ES. However, planning solely for these four important ES failed to represent those of other ES.

Conclusions

Our results may provide a tool to better inform land use decision planning in order to mitigate the impacts of urban growth on ES.

     

The efficacy of protected areas and private land for plant conservation in a fragmented landscape

Context

Protected areas are a cornerstone of the global strategy for conserving biodiversity, and yet their efficacy in comparison to unprotected areas is rarely tested. In the highly fragmented forests of temperate regions, landscape context and forest history may be more important than protection status for plant species diversity.

Objectives

To determine whether there are differences in plant diversity between protected areas and private lands while controlling for landscape context, forest age, and other important factors.

Methods

We used a database of 156 one-hectare forest plots distributed over 120,000 km² in the fragmented forests of southern Ontario to test whether protected areas and private forests differed in native species richness, relative abundance of exotic species, and the probability of finding species of conservation concern.

Results

Plots with more forest on the surrounding landscape had higher native species richness, lower abundance of exotic species, and greater probability of supporting at least one species of conservation concern. Young forests tended to have higher abundance of exotics, and were less likely to support species of conservation concern. Surprisingly, privately owned forests had greater native species richness and were more likely to support species of conservation concern once these other factors were accounted for. In addition, there were significant interactions between ownership type, forest history, and landscape context.

Conclusions

Our results highlight the importance of privately owned forests in this region, and the need to consider forest history and landscape context when comparing the efficacy of protected areas versus private land for sustaining biodiversity.

     

Characterizing wild ass pathways using a non-invasive approach: applying least-cost path modelling to guide field surveys and a model selection analysis

Movement of animals is a key process affecting population dynamics. Information on factors that affect pathway use is essential for identifying and protecting pathways, and important for maintaining connectivity among populations. We present an innovative, non-invasive, approach for predicting pathways of reintroduced Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) in Israel, which is based on understanding the effects of landscape factors on pathways use. The approach includes: Predicting pathways, by employing a least cost pathway (LCP) GIS models based on several landscape factors, so as to efficiently direct a field survey and explore the wild ass’s general preferences of pathway types; Collecting empirical data by surveying the dung density of wild ass along each of the predicted pathways and using the data as an index of pathway use; Evaluating the predicted pathways against the empirical data collected, to estimate the general pathway preferences of the wild ass; and Developing and evaluating alternative generalized linear models, according to a priori hypotheses based on empirical data so as to quantify the effect of different landscape factors on pathway use. The analyses were conducted for the entire landscape, and then for two distinct landscape types, open landscape and landscape-barriers (mountain ridges), as subsets of the entire landscape. There were clear differences in the mean number of faeces counts between the LCPs, indicating that the wild ass prefers certain pathway types as a function of landscape features. We further found that the factors affecting E. hemionus pathway usage—vegetation; slopes; canyons; and 4-wheel drive routes—varied largely between the two major landscape types studied, demonstrating the importance of studying space use patterns at different landscape terrains. This information can be applicable to landscape planning measures that aim to enhance protection of the species. This approach provides a framework for studying animal space-use patterns of a variety of species, including elusive species, in a heterogeneous landscape.     

Spatial and temporal dynamics of habitat availability and stability for a critically endangered arboreal marsupial: implications for conservation planning in a fire-prone landscape

Landscape Ecology - Effective conservation planning for species depends on vegetation models that can capture the dynamics of habitat elements across both spatial and temporal domains....     

From explanation to application: introducing a practice-oriented ecosystem services evaluation (PRESET) model adapted to the context of landscape planning and management

The development and use of the conceptual framework of ecosystem services (ES) has been very successful in supporting the broad diffusion and application of ES within science and policy communities. However, most of the currently proposed interpretations of the framework neither correlate to environmental planning nor to decision-making contexts at the local and regional scale, which is a potential reason for the slow adoption and practice of the ES conceptual framework. This paper proposes a practice-oriented ES evaluation (PRESET) model specifically adapted to the requirements of local and regional planning and decision-making contexts, and discusses its potential benefits and implications for practice. Through the usage of PRESET we suggest making a distinction between ‘offered ES’, ‘utilized ES’, ‘human input’, and ‘ES benefits’ as relevant information for decision-making. Furthermore, we consider it important to link these decision-support categories to different value dimensions relevant in planning and management practice. PRESET provides guidance to inject the ES concept into planning, but needs to be implemented together with concrete assessment methods, indicators and data. The planning strategic benefits of using PRESET include its reference to existing legislative objectives, avoiding the risk that monetized ES values might dominate decision-making, clarification of human contributions, and easier identification of land use conflicts and synergies. Examples are given for offered and utilized ES, as well as for respective evaluation approaches and instruments of implementation.     

Function of gap junction in NRK52E cells exposed to bilirubin combined with lipopolysaccharide

AIM: To observe the effect of bilirubin (BR) combined with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on the growth and gap junction of NRK52E cells. METHODS: NRK52E cells were cultured and treated with different concentrations of bilirubin combined with lipopolysaccharide. The growth of NRK52E cells was measured by MTT method. The function of gap junction in NRK52E cells was determined by the method of fluoroimmunoassay. RESULTS: BR promoted the growth of NRK52E cells in a dose-dependent manner from 17.1 μmol/L to 513 μmol/L but inhibited it at more than 513 μmol/L. LPS inhibited the growth of NRK52E cells in a dose-dependent manner from 10-1 000 μg/L. Under the condition of BR combined with LPS at 100 μg/L, BR at 513 μmol/L increased the growth of NRK52E cells while BR at 684 μmol/L decreased the growth of the cells (P<0.05). Combined with LPS at 100 μg/L, BR at 513 μmol/L increased the permeability of the gap junction (P<0.05), while BR at 684 μmol/L decreased the permeability of the gap junction. CONCLUSION: BR at a low concentration (513 μmol/L) decreases, and BR at a high concentration (684 μmol/L) increases the toxicity of LPS on NRK52E cells by affecting the function of gap junctions in the cells.     

Spatial scale effects on conservation network design: trade-offs and omissions in regional versus local scale planning

Ecological patterns and processes operate at a variety of spatial scales. Those which are regional in nature may not be effectively captured through the combination of conservation plans derived at the local level, where land use planning frequently takes place. Conversely, regional conservation plans may not identify resources important for conservation of intraregional ecological variation. We compare modeled conservation networks derived at regional and local scales from the same area in order to analyze the impact of scale effects on conservation planning. Using the MARXAN reserve selection algorithm and least cost corridor analysis we identified a potential regional conservation network for the Central Valley ecoregion of California, USA, from which we extracted those portions found within five individual counties. We then conducted the same analysis for each of the five counties. An overlay of the results from the two scales shows a general pattern of large differences in the identified networks. Especially noteworthy are the trade-offs and omissions evident at both scales of analysis and the disparateness of the identified corridors that connect core reserves. The results suggest that planning efforts limited to one scale will neglect biodiversity patterns and ecological processes that are important at other scales. An intersection of results from the two scales can potentially be used to prioritize areas for conservation found to be important at several spatial scales.     

Playground planning and management: An evaluation of standard-influenced provision through user needs

In previous playground planning models, standards, customs and different ideas about needs have commonly had great influence, while actual users have had little. As public play provision is changing and new approaches are developed, it is necessary to evaluate how well existing standard-influenced provision suits the needs and preferences of users. A comparative case study was carried out in two Swedish towns with different site-specific characteristics as regards the surrounding landscape and social connections. The empirical data obtained were used to (i) identify factors affecting playground use for different user groups, (ii) compare the two local contexts and (iii) evaluate how well existing standard-influenced playground provision matches needs and preferences. Users were studied through interviews with school children, questionnaire surveys of preschools and parents, interviews with park workers and GIS mapping of children’s homes, while play provision was evaluated through observations of playgrounds and private gardens with play equipment. Differences were found between user groups, as children look for activities and variation, parents for practical and social functions and preschool groups for activities for many children. Between users in the two towns, the social function and the importance of playgrounds appeared to depend on the context, in terms of site-specific physical and social conditions. The differences appeared to affect use and should be given greater consideration in playground planning and management. Adherence to planning standards has resulted in the construction of many playgrounds, but more variation between units and particular qualities are important in attracting users.     

Enhancing pollination ecosystem service in urban green areas: An opportunity for the conservation of pollinators

The rapid growing urbanization is one of the main threats to urban biodiversity and the ecosystem services (ES) that they provide. Pollination is one of the most affected ES in urban areas mainly due to the decline in urban green areas (UGAs) and other factors derived from urbanization itself. Considering this and the already existing global pollinator crisis, the aim of this work is the evaluation of urban green infrastructure as an opportunity for pollinator conservation. For that purpose, the ornamental vegetation of a medium-sized Mediterranean city (Granada, south-eastern Spain) was determined. The floral origin, phenology and floral traits of the conforming species and the pollinator species that they attract were analysed. Additionally, NMDS analysis were performed in order to determine if the “Pollination Syndromes” are a useful tool to actually predict the pollinator group attracted to a certain plant species. It was found that UGAs have huge potential for pollinator conservation as the major part of its ornamental species have an entomophilic pollination strategy. However, there is an imbalance in the availability of flower resources throughout the year. Hence, the addition of species flowering out of the main flowering season would be advisable in order to get a continuous supply of floral resources for pollinators. A current disproportion in the potentially attracted pollinator groups was also found out, being bees the predominantly attracted ones. However, results showed that the “Pollination Syndromes” are a tool with limitations at the moment and needs to be used with considerations. Thus, the specific plant-pollinator relationship should be determined through field work in each case-study. Further studies considering key factors such as urban connectivity and fragmentation would be desirable to ensure a comprehensive management for urban pollinators.     

Amur tigers and leopards returning to China: direct evidence and a landscape conservation plan

Context

The Amur tiger and leopard, once roaming over the Eurasian continent, are now endangered and confined to the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, Russia—a landscape that has been increasingly fragmented due to human activities. The ultimate fate of these big cats depends on whether they can resettle in their previous main historical range in NE China. Recent sightings of these animals along the China–Russia border have aroused new hope, but direct evidence is lacking.

Objectives

The main objectives of our study were (1) to determine the abundance and spatiotemporal patterns of tigers, leopards, and primary prey; (2) to investigate factors influencing the resettlement of the two big cats; and (3) to propose a landscape-scale conservation plan to secure the long-term sustainability of the Amur tiger and leopard.

Methods

We monitored the two felids, their prey, and human activities, with 380 camera-trap stations, for a total of 175,127 trap days and over an area of 6000 km² in NE China. We used the constraint line method to characterize cattle grazing and human influences on tigers, leopards, and their prey species.

Results

Our results show that, unexpectedly, at least 26 tigers and 42 leopards are present within China, which are confined primarily to a narrow area along the border with Russia. We have further identified that cattle grazing and human disturbances are the key hurdles to the dispersal of the tigers and leopards farther into China where suitable habitat is potentially available.

Conclusions

Amur tigers and leopards are returning to China, indeed, but their long-term resettlement is not likely without active and timely conservation efforts on landscape and regional scales. To overcome the hurdles to the resettlement of tigers and leopards in China, we propose a “Tiger and Leopard Resettlement Program” that will engage the government, local communities, and researchers, so that the long-term sustainability of the Amur tigers and leopards can be ensured.

     

The spatial pattern of demographic performance as a component of sustainable landscape management and planning

Prioritizing habitat for animal conservation in heterogeneous landscapes requires an understanding of where animal occurrence coincides with human influences on demographic performance. We related broad-scale patterns of occurrence with risk of mortality among female Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus) in a human-modified landscape to develop a spatially-explicit framework for animal conservation at the landscape level. Variability in the spatial pattern of elk occurrence was driven by preference for specific habitat types as well as responses to human activity. In contrast, risk of mortality was a function of human modification of the landscape with little variation explained by habitat. Proximity to industrial development was associated with increased risk of mortality whereas proximity to residences and agricultural structures was associated with decreased risk. Individual-level results revealed added complexity, whereby risk of mortality was associated with a consistent pattern of occurrence relative to industrial development, yet the association between risk and occurrence relative to structures was highly variable and likely a function of disparate land-use priorities. Approaches to managing human-mediated risk at the landscape level are most effective when they decompose human activity into constituent parts influencing risk, and when individual variation relative to the population response is investigated. Conservation interventions need to target factors that have a consistent influence across the population rather than risk uncertainty that would arise from targeting factors that influence individuals in variable or situation-specific ways. The spatial tools developed herein provide guidance for sustainable landscape planning in the study area, while the concept of linking occurrence and demographic performance within a hierarchical modeling framework has general application for animal conservation in landscapes subject to change, human-caused or otherwise.     

商业步行街公共停车空间规划及景观设计探析

城市日益增长的汽车数量在方便人们日常生活的同时,也给中心区商业步行街的静态交通带来严峻的挑战,在很大程度上阻碍了商业步行街的健康发展。因此,创造高质、高效的停车空间是当下步行街整体规划设计的重要任务。通过对商业步行街停车空间现存问题、绿化方式与设计原则等方面进行分析研究,力争使其规划更具合理性、指导性与前瞻性。