Intra-specific competition in maize: Ear development,flowering dynamics and kernel set of early-established plant hierarchies

Maize canopies with a synchronous seedling emergence and a uniform plant spatial distribution exhibit early-established plant hierarchies (at the 4-leaf stage; V₄). The dominant and dominated individuals of the stand differ in plant growth rate during both the pre-silking period (i.e. from V₇ to V₁₃; PGR_PS) and the period around silking (i.e. a 30 d period centered in silking; PGR_S), and in the ear growth rate around silking (EGR_S). Based on the depleted availability of assimilates of the dominated plants, we tested the hypotheses that (i) the low PGR_PS of dominated individuals affects the morphogenesis of the apical ear leading to a low number of completely developed flowers per ear, and (ii) the low EGR_S of dominated individuals results in a pronounced asynchrony of flowering dynamics and uneven silk exsertion from the husks. Two hybrids with contrasting tolerance to crowding stress (DK752 and DK765 as the tolerant and the intolerant hybrid, respectively) were cropped under different intensities of interplant competition (6, 12, 12 plants m⁻² thinned to 6 plants m⁻² at V₉ and 6 plants m⁻² shaded from V₉ onwards) during 2004/2005 and at 12 plants m⁻² during 2005/2006 at Pergamino (34°56′S 60°34′W), Argentina. Dominant plants were the individuals of the stands with the highest PGR_PS (ca. 1.72 and 2.56 g d⁻¹ for dominated and dominant plants, respectively), PGR_S (ca. 3.05 and 3.94 g d⁻¹ for dominated and dominant plants, respectively) and EGR_S (ca. 1.06 and 1.55 g d⁻¹ for dominated and dominant plants, respectively). This plant type also exhibited the most synchronous flowering dynamics (anthesis–silking interval ca. 1.49 and 1.15 days for dominated and dominant plants, respectively) and the highest kernel set (ca. 401 and 572 kernels plant⁻¹ for dominated and dominant plants, respectively). Apical ears of dominated plants exhibited a delayed in the rate of progress to successive floral stages, but the final number of completely developed flowers per ear did not differ between extreme plant types (ca. 967 and 803 completely developed flowers per ear for DK752 and DK765, respectively). Hence, kernel number per plant was not limited by the number of completely developed flowers per ear, but flowering dynamics were a decisive factor in kernel set of both plant types. Asynchronous silking within the ear of dominated plants determined a greater proportion of flowers per ear with non-exposed silks on silking + 5 d and a larger asynchrony in silk extrusion within the ear. These responses increased kernel abortion rate respect to figures obtained for dominant individuals.     

Intra-specific competition in maize: Early established hierarchies differ in plant growth and biomass partitioning to the ear around silking

Early interferences among plants within a maize stand determine the establishment of extreme plant types (i.e. dominant and dominated individuals). The development of these hierarchies takes place well before [from the seventh leaf stage (V₇) onwards] the start of the critical period for kernel set (i.e. a 30-day period centered in silking). Kernel number per plant (KNP) is significantly related to plant growth rate around silking (PGR_S) and biomass partitioning to the ear during this period. Previous evidence has demonstrated that at high stand densities, extreme plant types may exhibit similar PGR_S values but set different KNP. We tested the hypothesis that early established plant hierarchies differ in biomass allocation to the ears during the period around silking. Two hybrids of contrasting tolerance to crowding (DK752 and DK765 as the tolerant and the intolerant hybrid, respectively) were cropped at different interplant competition intensities (6, 12, 12 pl m⁻² thinned to 6 pl m⁻² at V₉ and 6 pl m⁻² shading from V₉ onwards) during 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 in Argentina. For all treatments, the coefficient of variation (CV) of plant biomass increased from V₃ (ca. 1.2%) to V_9-10 (ca. 22%). From V₇ onwards, plant growth rate of dominant individuals was higher (P < 0.05) than that of the dominated plants. Hence, dominant plants exhibited higher (P < 0.05) PGR_S (ca. 4.5 g pl day⁻¹) than dominated individuals (ca. 3.7 g pl day⁻¹). As PGR_S declined in response to increased plant population density (ca. 5.1 and 2.8 for 6 and 12 pl m⁻², respectively), biomass partitioning to the ear was reduced (ca. 0.44 and 0.33 for 6 and 12 pl m⁻², respectively). For all treatments, however, dominant plants exhibited a greater biomass partitioning to the ear (ca. 0.41) than the dominated individuals (ca. 0.36). Consequently, the former were the individuals with the highest ear growth rate (ca. 1.9 and 1.4 g per ear per day for the dominant and dominated plant, respectively) and KNP (ca. 623 and 490 kernels per plant for the dominant and dominated plant, respectively) of the stand. We identified three traits on DK765 related to the low tolerance to high-density stress of this genotype: (i) a higher plant-to-plant variability (CV ca. 26% and 19%, for DK765 and DK752, respectively), (ii) a lower biomass partitioning to the ear around silking (ca. 0.26 and 0.39 for DK765 and DK752, respectively), and (iii) a higher response rate of KNP to ear growth rate around silking (ca. 370–738 and 360–414 kernels per g, for DK765 and DK752, respectively). Hence, as stand density was increased, KNP of DK765 was sharply reduced, especially in the dominated individuals of the stand.     

Predicting maize kernel sink capacity early in development

Development of maize (Zea mays L.) kernels follows a predictable pattern involving rapid increase in dry weight and large changes in water content (WC). We showed previously that final kernel weight (KW) was closely correlated with maximum WC achieved during rapid grain filling. The objectives of the current work were (i) to test if percent moisture content (MC, measured on a fresh weight basis) could be used to normalize genetic and environmental variations in kernel development shown to affect final KW and (ii) to determine whether final KW could be predicted from kernel WC prior to rapid grain filling. The data examined included results from five hybrids varying more than 2-fold in final KW grown in the field, and from previously published results. When KW and WC were expressed relative to their maximum values obtained during kernel development, a single model described the relationship between dry weight accumulation and MC for the larger seeded hybrids (199–352 mg kernel⁻¹) and published results (222–359 mg kernel⁻¹). Two smaller seeded yellow-flint popcorn hybrids, however, accumulated less dry matter per unit moisture than expected. Nonetheless, all genotypes exhibited a common developmental relationship between kernel WC (expressed as a percent of the maximum value) and MC under well-watered conditions. A new model was developed to couple this developmental relationship to final KW. This model accurately predicted final KW from kernel WC values measured prior to rapid grain filling (∼80% MC; root mean square error, RMSE, of 28.9 mg kernel⁻¹) for all hybrids examined and all published results for which KW and kernel WC data were available. The model also provided a simple means to determine whether final KW was limited by photosynthate supply during kernel development.     

Enhanced kernel set promoted by synchronous pollination determines a tradeoff between kernel number and kernel weight in temperate maize hybrids

Maize (Zea mays L.) grain yield is strongly related to the number of harvested kernels, where kernel number can be increased by synchronously pollinating silks rather than allowing them to be progressively pollinated as they naturally appear from the husks. However, there is scarce evidence on how this practice affects kernel weight (KW) and plant grain yield (PGY), and no report exists on its effects when combined with treatments aimed to reduce apical dominance, like male sterility and detasseling. Field experiments were conducted in two growing seasons (Exp₁ and Exp₂) using two hybrids, cropped at contrasting stand densities (3 and 9 plants per m²) and including (i) male-fertile and male-sterile versions, (ii) tasseled and detasseled plants, and (iii) natural (NP) and synchronous pollination (SP; pollen added manually to ears bagged 5 days after initial silking) systems. Tassel growth of sterile and fertile versions was also evaluated in a separate experiment (Exp₃). Detasseling increased the number of ears per plant reaching silking (P < 0.001) of NP plants, but this beneficial effect of reduced apical dominance did not improve kernel number per plant (KNP) or PGY. Similarly, the early arrest of anther growth in male-sterile plants had no clear benefit on KNP. In contrast, KNP was enhanced by synchronous pollination (range between −13% and +71%; average of +15.4% in Exp₁ and +3.9% in Exp₂). However, this pollination system promoted a decreased in KW (range between −30% and +4%; average of −11.8% in Exp₁ and −7.8 in Exp₂) such that the treatment had no effect on PGY (range between −19% and +37%; average of +1% in Exp₁ and −4% in Exp₂). Because plant growth rate around flowering was not different between pollination treatments, assimilate availability per kernel was reduced from ovary fertilization onwards in synchronously pollinated plants when compared to open pollinated plants. This explains the reduced KW when increasing KNP by synchronous pollination. In summary, none of the imposed treatments allowed grain yield to be increased at the plant level.     

Heat stress effects around flowering on kernel set of temperate and tropical maize hybrids

Final kernel number in the uppermost ear of temperate maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids is smaller than the potential represented by the number of florets differentiated in this ear, and than the number of silks exposed from it (i.e., kernel set <1). This trend increases when stressful conditions affect plant growth immediately before (GS₁) or during (GS₂) silking, but the magnitude of change has not been documented for heat stress effects and hybrids of tropical background. In this work we evaluated mentioned traits in field experiments (Exp₁ and Exp₂), including (i) two temperature regimes, control and heated during daytime hours (ca. 33-40 °C at ear level), (ii) two 15-d periods during GS₁ and GS₂, and (iii) three hybrids (Te: temperate; Tr: tropical; TeTr: Te × Tr). We also measured crop anthesis and silking dynamics, silk exposure of individual plants, and the anthesis-silking interval (ASI). Three sources of kernel loss were identified: decreased floret differentiation, pollination failure, and kernel abortion. Heating affected all surveyed traits, but negative effects on flowering dynamics were larger (i) for anthesis than for silking with the concomitant decrease in ASI, and (ii) for GS₁ than for GS₂. Heat also caused a decrease in the number of (i) florets only when performed during GS₁ (−15.5% in Exp₁ and −9.1% in Exp₂), and only among Te and TeTr hybrids, (ii) exposed silks of all GS × Hybrid combinations, and (iii) harvestable kernels (mean of −51.8% in GS₁ and −74.5% in GS₂). Kernel abortion explained 95% of the variation in final kernel numbers (P < 0.001), and negative heat effects were larger on this loss (38.6%) than on other losses (≤11.3%). The tropical genetic background conferred an enhanced capacity for enduring most negative effects of heating.     

The composition of floury and vitreous endosperm affects starch digestibility kinetics of the whole maize kernel

Maize grain starch is the major energy source in animal nutrition, and its high digestion and utilization largely depend on endosperm traits and the structure of the starch-lipoprotein matrix. The aim of this work was to determine floury and vitreous endosperm traits and its relation to starch digestibility rate. In total, kernels of 30 hybrids were manually dissected, and amylose, total zein and starch and non-starch lipids were determined in both vitreous and floury endosperm. Starch digestibility of the whole kernel was determined based on glucose released during a two-step in vitro pig model of enzymatic digestion, and starch digestibility rate was calculated according to the first-order kinetics. The vitreous endosperm of tested hybrids had higher contents of amylose (204.6 vs 190.4 g/kg), zein (63.2 vs 40.4 k/kg) and starch lipids (5.6 vs 4.9 g/kg), and lower content of non-starch lipids (7.3 vs 9.6 g/kg) than floury endosperm. Digestibility coefficients varied among hybrids, and starch digestibility rate varied from 0.73 to 1.63 1/h. Lipids in both vitreous and floury endosperm negatively correlated with the most of digestion coefficients, whereas zein correlated in vitreous and amylose in the floury endosperm (P < 0.05). Starch digestibility rate negatively correlated with all traits, except amylose content in vitreous endosperm. As a result, a linear regression model with four variables including contents of zein and starch lipids in vitreous and zein and amylose in floury endosperm can predict more than 65% variability of starch digestibility rate of tested hybrids.     

Weed management in maize using crop competition: A review

Weeds are a major constraint to crop production, and are responsible for considerable yield losses in maize production systems throughout the world. Herbicides are widely used for weed control in maize production systems, but can have negative environmental consequences. Researchers have evaluated the use of crop competition and suppression to manage weeds in various crop combinations, including maize-based systems. Crop competition in maize may involve techniques such as reduced row spacing, increased planting density, and the use of competitive cultivars that exhibit weed suppressive potential. In this review, examination of the literature has revealed the considerable value of using crop competition in integrated weed management programs. Research has demonstrated that narrowing row spacing to half the standard distance reduced weed biomass by 39–68%, depending on weed species. Researchers have also demonstrated that increasing maize planting density by up to twice the standard rate achieved a reduction in weed biomass of 26–99%. While little research has been conducted into the use of competitive maize cultivars for weed management, several studies have documented cultivars with potential to suppress weeds. Attributes of weed competitive cultivars include high leaf area index, and other elements of leaf architecture that improve light interception by the crop, so increasing the shading of weeds. Combining crop competition methods with other agronomic practices can increase their effectiveness in controlling weeds. For example, biomass of Setaria italica (L.) Beauv was reduced by 60% when maize planting density was increased by 1.5 times the recommended spacing, and this effect was more pronounced when fertilizer was banded rather than broadcast. In summary, the strategic use of crop competition to control weeds has been a success in many regions, and is an important tool in integrated weed management. The importance of crop competition methods has particular relevance where farmers are unable to afford herbicides, as making use of crop competition is more economical.     

Contribution of contrasting plant hierarchies to the response to N fertilizer in maize

The typical size structuring process that occurs as a consequence of intra-specific competition in maize promotes the appearance of contrasting plant hierarchies (i.e. dominated and dominant individuals). This process may become more intense under low nitrogen (N) availability. The alleviation of plant competition by N addition may reduce plant yield variability through a differential response to N in individuals of contrasting hierarchies. In this work, the response to N of dominated and dominant plants from stands with contrasting N supply (0 to 140-200 kg N ha⁻¹) was examined on 11 experiments carried out in Paraná, Argentina (31°50′S; 60°31′W) in a broad range of growing conditions that included the variation of the year, genotype, plant population and sowing date. Our objectives were: (i) to evaluate the response to N in contrasting plant hierarchies of maize, (ii) to quantify the contribution of dominated and dominant plants to the response to N of the overall stand, and (iii) to study the effect of N on relationships between plant hierarchies and stand variability. Response to N of yield per plant was associated with biomass per plant in non-fertilized controls, tending to be higher in plants with low biomass. The response to N of yield per unit area (i.e., considering all individuals of the stand) was related to the response to N of dominant and dominated plants (P < 0.0001). However, at a higher level of response to N of grain yield per unit area (>50-60%), dominant plants had a considerable lower response than dominated plants, whereas at a lower level of response (<30%), the contribution of contrasting plant hierarchies was similar. In stands with similar plant biomass between hierarchies, the differences in the response to N between plant types tended to be negligible. The coefficient of variation of yield per plant was reduced (P < 0.05) by effect of N in 4 out of 11 experiments, although it tended to be consistently lower in fertilized treatments. When the differences between the biomass of dominated and dominant plants were ample we found the highest response to N at the stand level, as a result of the higher increase in grain yield per plant in dominated plants than in dominant ones. The response to N in each plant hierarchy was differentially associated with increases in shoot biomass, harvest index, kernel number per plant and kernel weight.     

Stand establishment and early field vigour variation in a tropicalised shrunken-2 maize population

Low field emergence and early field vigour are major problems in shrunken-2 maize (sh-2). The genetic variability for stand-ability and early field vigour in a shrunken-2 maize population previously improved for adaptability to a tropical environment was investigated using a Design I mating system in which 40 randomly sampled males were crossed to four randomly sampled plants that served as females. Plants of the 160 crosses, representing full- and half-sib relationships, were evaluated in four sets, each composed of 40 crosses derived from 10 males during two growing seasons. Experimental design was randomized complete block with three replications. Difference in Emergence Index (EI) was not significant between the two seasons. Emergence Percentage (E%), Emergence Rate Index (ERI), and early field vigour traits viz. vigour score and seedling height determined at 28 days after planting (DAP) were, however, significantly (P < 0.05–P < 0.01) better in the first growing season. For all traits, the ‘female/male’ item was significant (P < 0.01) while ‘male’ was mostly non-significant. ‘Season × female/male’ interaction was significant for stand establishment traits but not for early field vigour traits. Averaged over all traits, dominance variance was 8.2 times higher than additive variance. Genetic variation for stand establishment and early field vigour in the tropicalised shrunken-2 maize population would be best exploited through the development of inbred lines, hybrids and synthetics. Broad-sense heritability was 53.0% for E%, 36.0% for EI, 33.0% for ERI, 71.5% for vigour score and 90.0% for seedling height. One hundred-seed weight ranged between 82.0 and 182.0 mg but correlation coefficients between seed weight on one hand, and E%, EI, ERI, vigour score and plant height on the other hand, were low (mostly <0.30) and, in general, non-significant. Emergence percentage had the highest average genotypic correlation value with the other traits studied (Mean Absolute Value = 0.71 in the first season and 0.45 in the second season). Emergence percentage, determined 10 days after planting, thus has potential for use as a selection index for stand establishment and early field vigour.     

玉米子粒败育过程的早期特征及物质动态

通过对不同类型玉米子粒发育动态比较研究发现,败育粒在授粉前期其子房长度及重量就明显低于正常子粒。随授粉后天数的增加,其差距日渐扩大,约在授粉后8～12d(8－12DAA)停止发育转向衰退。子粒败育过程可区分为两个阶段：0－8DAA为败育诱导期,8－16DAA为表观衰败期。在子粒败育诱导期,糖分及蛋白质浓度并不低。研究认为,顶端子粒的败育可能与其库活性较低有关。     

Grain yield components in maize: II. Postsilking growth and kernel weight

Maize kernel weight (KW) results from kernel growth during two stages of grain filling, the lag phase (formative period) and the effective grain-filling phase. Environmental conditions may affect kernel biomass accumulation in each phase. This work analyzed: (1) changes in duration and rate of kernel growth on a thermal time (°C day) basis; and (2) KW response to postsilking biomass production kernel⁻¹ (source:sink ratio). Sowing date, plant population, and nitrogen fertilization experiments were conducted in France and Argentina to induce changes in assimilate availability per kernel. Hybrids of different KW were tested. Hybrids differed in the duration of the lag phase, which determined kernel growth rate during the effective grain-filling period for hybrids with similar grain-filling duration (ca. 745°C day). Environments with low air temperature (<19°C) and less incident solar radiation led to a smaller final KW due to reductions in photoassimilate production and its partition to the grains. A value of 240 to 270 mg kernel⁻¹ during grain filling was determined as a threshold to have mobilization or storage of reserves. Small-kernel hybrids (KW<300 mg), with large kernel number (3500 to 5500 kernels m⁻²), depended more on reserve mobilization than large-kernel hybrids (KW>300 mg) with reduced kernel number (2800 to 4000 kernels m⁻²). For the former, grain yield increments should not be based on increased kernel number but on increased biomass production.     

Trait dissection of maize kernel weight: Towards integrating hierarchical scales using a plant growth approach

Maize (Zea mays L.) yield is a function of the number harvested kernels per unit land area and the individual kernel weight (KW). Kernel weight and its development show a wide variability due to the genotype, the environment, the crop management, and all possible interactions. Commercial maize hybrids differ markedly in the patterns (rate and duration of kernel growth) behind differences in final KW. The same can be observed when public or elite proprietary maize inbred lines are analyzed. To progress in our understanding of KW variability, we reviewed and discussed current knowledge for analyzing kernel growth as an integrated system, modulated by processes linking different levels of organization (the different kernel tissues, the whole kernel, the plant, the canopy). Ideas on how to integrate this knowledge towards the development of a multi-hierarchical scale framework for predicting KW under different growth environments are currently needed, as they have high relevance for dissecting the genetic basis of kernel growth and maize yield definition at the canopy level.     

Critical competition period of parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) in maize

For minimizing yield losses due to infestation of a weed, it is essential to know about its critical period of competition in a specific crop. The yield response of maize (Zea mays L.) to different competition periods (0, 35, 42, 49 and 56 days after crop emergence (DAE), and competition throughout growing season) of the invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus L. was tested during autumn seasons of two consecutive years 2012 and 2013. Increasing parthenium competition period increased its dry weight up to 448% and relative competition index up to 52%. The corresponding increases in the uptake of N (up to 581%), P (up to 700%) and K (up to 669%) were also recorded. Parthenium weed competition period of 35 DAE decreased grain yield and harvest index of maize. However, number of grains and grain weight per cob, and 100-grain weight of maize were reduced at parthenium weed competition period beyond 42 and 56 DAE, respectively. Maize grain yield losses varied between 21 and 53% with parthenium competition period ranging from 35 DAE to full growing season. Maximum N, P, and K uptake by parthenium was 18.4, 2.4 and 17.7 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. A three parameter logistic model was fitted to yield data in response to increasing durations of weed infestation. The critical timing of parthenium weed removal to avoid 5% and 10% maize grain yield loss was 8 and 17, and 13 and 23 DAE during year 2012 and 2013, respectively. Relatively shorter critical period of parthenium weed competition in maize crop suggested this weed to be highly allelopathic in addition to its competitive behavior.     

Cultural control of leafhopper-induced maize wallaby ear symptom in forage maize via early planting dates

Maize wallaby ear symptom (MWES) is induced by maize orange leafhopper (Cicadulina bipunctata) feeding and stunts the growth of maize. We examined the relationship between maize developmental stage and MWES occurrence and the effect of planting date on injury from MWES in western Japan. MWES was more pronounced on young maize, and rarely observed on maize older than the 5th or 6th leaf stage, indicating that younger maize is more susceptible to MWES. In a field experiment, early planting (before late July) avoided MWES and resulted in higher yields of forage maize, whereas MWES occurrence and yield loss gradually increased with late planting (from early to middle August) because of a rapid increase in C. bipunctata density during this period. Leaf and stem dry matter of the MWES-susceptible maize variety “3470” decreased together with increase in density of C. bipunctata, whereas leaf and stem dry matter of the MWES-tolerant maize variety “30D44” decreased little. These results indicate that earlier planting together with the use of MWES-tolerant varieties can significantly improve MWES control on forage maize.     

Multiplication ofPseudomonas solanacearum in resistant potato plants and the establishment of latent infections

When 1-mo-old plants of a wilt-resistant clone ofSolanum phureja (1386.15) were stem-inoculated with three strains ofPseudomonas solanacearum (K60, S123, and S206), the bacteria multiplied rapidly at the point of inoculation and then moved in the vascular system to other parts of the stem. Resistant plants showed a remarkable ability to support relatively high populations of the bacterium in the absence of disease symptoms. Although multiplication in this resistant clone was substantially less than in susceptible Russet Burbank potato plants, large numbers of bacteria (up to 624 × 10⁴ cells of K60 per 5-cm stem segment) reached the base of the stem of plants maintained at high temperature (28°C) for 20 days after stem inoculation. From the base of the stem, the bacteria moved rapidly into the roots and tubers. Strains ofP. solanacearum differed in their ability to cause latent tuber infection in different resistant potato clones. When 11S.phureja ×S. tuberosum hybrids were stem-inoculated, maintained at 28°C for 3 wk and then grown to maturity at 20°C., most of the clones yielded tubers infected by one or more strains. The race 1 strain (K60) was the most infectious; 53.8% of all tubers harvested from all plants inoculated with this isolate carried latent infections. Because one clone (BR 53.1) never yielded infected tubers, there appear to be genetic factors which may be useful in breeding programs aimed at eliminating latent tuber infection.     

A differentially methylated region of the ZmCCT10 promoter affects flowering time in hybrid maize

Flowering time(FT) is a key maize domestication trait, variation in which allows maize to grow in a wide range of latitudes. Although previous studies have investigated the genetic control of FT-related traits per se, few studies of FT hybrid performance have been published. We characterized the genomic architecture associated with hybrid performance for FT in a hybrid panel by testcrossing Chang 7–2 with 328Ye478 × Qi319 recombinant inbred lines(RILs). We identified 11 quantitative trait loci(Q...     

Analysis of genetic variability for retention of kernel carotenoids in sub-tropically adapted biofortified maize under different storage conditions

Mutant crtRB1 gene has contributed to provitamin-A (proA) rich maize cultivars worldwide. However, considerable degradation of proA during storage reduces its efficacy. Here, 22 biofortified inbreds with crtRB1 were stored for 6-months. Refrigerated and vacuum storage were significantly better than traditional storage for retention of both proA and non-proA carotenoids. Under traditional storage, β-cryptoxanthin (20.7%) had higher retention than β-carotene (16.3%), while lutein (53.9%) had better retention over zeaxanthin (42.4%) among crtRB1-inbreds. Major fraction of proA (68.8%) was lost during first three months of storage, while non-proA showed slow and progressive degradation (3-months: 28.5% loss, 6-months: 49.4% loss) under traditional storage. HKI161PV (27.4%), HP465-41 (26.9%), HKI193–1 PV (25.9%) and HP465-30 (25.7%) were the most potential inbreds with >25% retention of proA compared to 8–10% retention among crtRB1-based inbreds. Promising inbreds can be used as donor in biofortification programme, while contrasting inbreds distinctly differing for retention of proA carotenoids can be used to map loci for higher retention of proA.     

Effects of intraspecific competition on yield of early potato grown in mediterranean environment

Since the environment of the Mediterranean regions allows offseason production, potatoes are planted in autumn-winter and harvested in spring. During this period, potatoes are subjected to low temperatures and short day lengths which modify the growth characteristics of plants. For this reason, our analysis of competition response was conducted to better clarify the biological relationship between yield and plant density. Field trials were conducted in Sicily (south Italy), a highly representative area of early potato crop in the Mediterranean Basin, with the aim of studying effects of intraspecific competition on tuber yield and yield components. Ten planting densities (ranging from 3.0 to 8.0 plants m^?2) were studied on cv. Spunta using “tuberpieces” with a different number of eyes (one eye or all the eyes in 1996; one eye, two eyes, or all the eyes in 1997). Intraspecific competition reduced the tuber yield of individual plants, which became gradually less evident with increasing plant density. Competition affected the number of tubers per plant in the lower plant populations only (from 3.0 to 5.8 plants m^?2), whereas effects on average tuber weight were at times more marked in the higher populations (from 5.8 to 8.0 plants m^?2) and at other times in the lower densities (from 3.0 to 5.8 plants m^?2). As a consequence of increased plant density, and notwithstanding the higher intraspecific competition, the yield of tubers per unit area increased linearly. Regardless of the number of eyes per tuber-piece, when passing from the lower to the higher plant density, yield increased from 34.0 to 54.11 ha^?1 in 1996 and from 39.9 to 56.7 t ha^?1 in 1997.     

Inter-plant competition for resources in maize crops grown under contrasting nitrogen supply and density: Variability in plant and ear growth

Increased plant population density in irrigated and fertilized maize crops enhances plant-to-plant variability since early vegetative stages, because the most suppressed individuals of the stand intercept less radiation per unit leaf area than the dominant ones (i.e. a size-asymmetric competition for light). Contrarily, a size-symmetric competition has been proposed for the acquisition of soil resources in a plant community (e.g. N capture per unit root length is similar among plants of different size). Hence, N fertilization effect on the variability of maize plants would depend on the initial plant-to-plant variability or on that promoted by a high plant population density. Two maize hybrids with contrasting tolerance to crowding (tolerant AX820 and intolerant AX877) were cultivated under different combinations of stand densities (6, 9 and 12 plants m⁻²) and N supplies (0 and 200 kg N ha⁻¹) without water restrictions. Variability in plant growth rate among plants was computed along the cycle, especially after fertilizer was applied (i.e. the early reproductive period; PGR_ER) and during the critical period around silking (PGR_CP). Plant-to-plant variability in biomass partitioning to the ear (partition index; PI), ear growth rate during the critical period (EGR_CP) and kernel number per plant (KNP) was also established. Reduced N supply increased the coefficient of variation (CV) of PGR_ER, PGR_CP, EGR_CP and KNP (0.05 < P < 0.10). The CVs of PGR_CP, PI, EGR_CP and KNP augmented (0.001 < P < 0.10) at the highest stand density. The CVs of PGR_ER, PGR_CP, PI and KNP were larger for hybrid AX877 than for hybrid AX820 (0.001 < P < 0.10). N fertilization smoothed the initial plant-to-plant variability, but the extent of this benefit in a maize crop is genotype dependent; it was much larger in the hybrid tolerant to crowding stress than in the intolerant one. For the latter, the variability held during the critical period around silking and produced a high CV of KNP.     

Rice establishment method affects nitrogen use and crop production of rice–legume systems in drought-prone eastern India

The inclusion of grain legumes in rainfed lowland rice farming systems provides an opportunity to increase food production, household income, and human nutrition of impoverished rice farmers in Asia. We examined the effect of rice establishment method on the performance of wet season rice (Oryza sativa L.) and post-rice crops of either chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) or moong [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] on an Udic Haplustalf in the drought-prone, rainfed lowlands of eastern India. Rice was either direct seeded in lines on moist soil immediately after the onset of wet season rain or transplanted after sufficient rainwater accumulated for soil submergence. Crop establishment method had no effect on rice performance in a season (2001) with normal rainfall. In a drought season (2002), direct seeding resulted in mean rice grain yield of 2.3 t ha⁻¹, whereas the transplanted rice crop failed. The agronomic efficiency of N fertilizer applied to direct-seeded rice was comparable for the 2 years (18 and 24 kg grain per kg N applied). Topsoil inorganic N was markedly higher following chickpea and moong than following a post-rice fallow. Direct-seeded rice had higher yield and accumulation of N following a post-rice legume than following fallow, but transplanted rice derived no such benefit from the legume. Direct-seeded rice was established 1–2 months before transplanted rice, and direct-seeded rice matured before transplanted rice by 8 days in the favorable season and by 26 days in the drought season. The soil nitrate present after legumes and fallow rapidly disappeared, presumably by denitrification, following the onset of rains and soil flooding prior to transplanting. A portion of this accumulated soil nitrate was taken up by the direct-seeded rice before it could be lost. But transplanted rice did not benefit from this inorganic N derived from legumes because virtually all soil nitrate was lost before transplanting. Direct seeding of rice ensured better use of residual and applied N, reduced risk due to drought, and favored intensification with post-rice legumes in drought-prone lowland systems.