Guiding Principles for Small-Scale Forestry in a Watershed of the Venezuelan Andes: Constraints and Opportunities

In the Venezuelan Andes, some small-scale forest plantations have become an important resource basis for forest management. In this paper, the forestry management progress in the Mucujún river watershed is analyzed. Constraints and opportunities for sustainable management within national policies, local regulations, environmental features and social benefits are also examined. Plantation assessment, and biophysical, legal and socioeconomics information, are used for guiding small-scale forestry practices in this watershed, with emphasis on the main principles of landscape management. These plantations have become an important part of the socio-ecological landscapes with potential for wood production—in the context of low intensity and low environmental impact environmental services and amenity—because of the two protected areas within the watershed. Current forest stand conditions, however, reflect that management requires improvement. Furthermore, the analysis suggests that improvement of local livelihoods may be achieved with a small-scale forestry approach, taking properly into account the basic criteria of social involvement and management of planted forests, while maintaining ecosystem services including biodiversity and water supply.     

Reconciliation of research on forest carbon sequestration and water conservation

Carbon sequestration and water conservation are two of the key ecosystem services that forests provide for societal need to address environmental issues.Optimization of the dual services is the ultimate goal in forest management for mitigating global climate change and safeguarding terrestrial water balance.However,there are some tradeoffs between gain in forest productivity and ecosystem water balance.We conducted literature review based on published articles for learned knowledge on forest carbon fixation and hydrological regulations.Some knowledge gaps and research needs are identified by examining the inter-connections between forest carbon sequestration and water conservation.Past researches have helped gain basic understanding of the mechanisms and controls of forest carbon fixation and hydrological regulations as two separate issues.Tools and approaches are well established for quantifying and monitoring forest carbon and hydrological issues,operating at different spatial and temporal scales.There are knowledge gaps on how to design afforestation schemes facilitating enhanced ecosystem services in forest carbon sequestration and water conservation.For the top-down planning of afforestation in regions where water availability is anticipated to be problematic,the questions of how much and where to plant for given land availability,known environmental implications,and sustained regional development and livelihood need to be addressed.For local management considerations,the questions of what and how to plant prevail.Efforts are needed in joint studies of forest carbon sequestration and water conservation functionalities,specifically in relation to establishment and management of planted forests aiming for delivering regulatory ecosystem services in carbon sequestration,water conservation and other social values.We propose an integrated framework with dual consideration of carbon sequestration and water conservation in forest management for future research pursue.     

Using the high conservation value forest concept and Pareto optimization to identify areas maximizing biodiversity and ecosystem services in cork oak landscapes

Montados are silvo-pastoral systems, typical of the western Mediterranean Basin. When well managed, these ecosystems provide relevant ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation. In the northern part of the Mediterranean Basin, cork oak areas are mainly privately owned and a source of income to landowners, chiefly through cork and livestock production. Sustainable use is essential to maintain the ecological sustainability and socio-economic viability of these ecosystems. Biodiversity conservation and non-provisioning ecosystem services may generate additional incentives promoting sustainable use and conservation of montados, but require adequate mapping and identification. The high conservation value forest (HCVF) framework allows systematic inventory of biodiversity and non-provisioning ecosystem services and is widely applied in forest ecosystems. Here we exemplify the application of HCVF to the cork oak landscape of southern Portugal using a WebGIS tool that integrates the HCVF framework, in conjunction with Pareto optimization, to identify areas important for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. We present a case study using threatened bird and reptile species, as examples of biodiversity attributes, and carbon storage and water recharge rate of aquifers, as examples of ecosystem services attributes. We identify those areas in a cork oak landscape of southern Portugal where biodiversity and ecosystem services attributes are optimized. These areas can be prioritized for implementing conservation mechanisms, such as payment for ecosystem services, to promote sustainable forest management.     

Ecosystem services in human-dominated landscapes: insectivory in agroforestry systems

Despite of being structurally simpler and species-impoverished than natural forests, agroforestry plantations can act as a secondary habitat for native species and sustain some biodiversity. In particular, insectivores can provide important ecosystem services such as insectivory, indirectly benefiting plants through the reduction of herbivory and increasing productivity, by diminishing herbivores abundance. The lending of these services could occur in agroforestry systems, and in the same magnitude that in natural environments, however it has not yet been assessed whether the direct effect of insectivores over insects and indirect effect on plants differ between natural and agroforestry environments depending on possible modulating factors such as climatic region, type of insectivore, trophic group of the preyed arthropod and length of insectivores experimental exclusion. In this study, through a meta-analysis, it was assessed the provision of ecosystem services by insectivores in agroforestry systems compared to natural systems, contrasting it with the modulating factors mentioned. In general, insectivorous species reduced arthropod abundance and plant herbivory, and increased plant productivity. The magnitude and direction of these effects did not differ between natural and agroforestry systems, and neither did between different climatic regions, type of insectivore, preyed arthropod trophic groups nor experiment length. The effect of insectivores on productivity can vary based on the variable used to measure productivity. Our results evidence the provision of services by the insectivores present in plantations, independently of factors that could modulate its magnitude and direction. In this way, enhancing the existence of these important interactions within plantations could represent a win–win scenario.     

Agroforestry systems of high nature and cultural value in Europe: provision of commercial goods and other ecosystem services

Land use systems that integrate woody vegetation with livestock and/or crops and are recognised for their biodiversity and cultural importance can be termed high nature and cultural value (HNCV) agroforestry. In this review, based on the literature and stakeholder knowledge, we describe the structure, components and management practices of ten contrasting HNCV agroforestry systems distributed across five European bioclimatic regions. We also compile and categorize the ecosystem services provided by these agroforestry systems, following the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services. HNCV agroforestry in Europe generally enhances biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services relative to conventional agriculture and forestry. These systems can reduce fire risk, compared to conventional forestry, and can increase carbon sequestration, moderate the microclimate, and reduce soil erosion and nutrient leaching compared to conventional agriculture. However, some of the evidence is location specific and a better geographical coverage is needed to generalize patterns at broader scales. Although some traditional practices and products have been abandoned, many of the studied systems continue to provide multiple woody and non-woody plant products and high-quality food from livestock and game. Some of the cultural value of these systems can also be captured through tourism and local events. However there remains a continual challenge for farmers, landowners and society to fully translate the positive social and environmental impacts of HNCV agroforestry into market prices for the products and services.     

森林生态系统服务功能评估研究进展

森林生态系统是陆地生态系统的主体,具有涵养水源、保育土壤、固碳释氧、积累营养物质、净化大气环境、森林保护、生物多样性保护和森林游憩等多种服务功能。近年来,随着生态环境的日益恶化,森林生态系统服务功能研究已经成为生态学研究的前言和热点。本文基于国内外森林生态系统服务功能评估的研究成果,回顾了森林生态系统服务功能评估进展,对森林生态系统服务功能分类、评估方法进行概述,进而探讨森林生态系统服务功能评估的发展趋势。     

The changing Himalayan landscape: pine-oak forest dynamics and the supply of ecosystem services

This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on pine and oak forest dynamics in the mid-montane central Himalayan forest and the ecosystem services associated with these vegetation types. Forest ecosystems play a crucial role in the livelihood of the central Himalayas as well as the adjacent plains, providing a number of tangible and intangible ecosystem services, at each stage of succession. The successional sequence starts from warm temperate grasslands, followed by early successional pine forests, mid-successional pine-oak mixed forests and eventually culminating in a late successional oak community. This successional sequence is considerably influenced by disturbances like fire, grazing, and lopping, which maintain the vegetation types in their current form and can act as potential drivers of change. Fire and grazing in grasslands and pine forests inhibit the successional process by hindering the establishment of pioneer and late successional species, respectively. Potential land-cover changes with forest succession can lead to changes in ecosystem services supply. We found that the number of ecosystem services associated with these vegetation types increase from early to late successional community. Current management approaches fail to include the dynamic nature of vegetation, which is essential for maintenance of ecosystem service supply. In conclusion, the trade-offs between ES of global (biodiversity and carbon) and local importance (fuel wood and fodder) have to be examined carefully in order to have effective conservation and management plans for the region.     

Whole-tree harvesting with stump removal versus stem-only harvesting in peatlands when water quality,biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation matter

This article examines alternative forest harvesting regimes when ecosystem services in terms of water quality, biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation are included in the analysis. The harvesting regimes are whole-tree harvesting with stump removal and conventional stem-only harvesting. The harvesting regimes are evaluated under two alternative climate policy contexts. The first alternative is a carbon neutral bioenergy policy, which assumes the carbon dioxide (CO₂) neutrality of bioenergy and produces substitution benefits, as bioenergy replaces fossil fuels. The second alternative climate policy, a carbon non-neutral bioenergy policy, takes into account the fact that bioenergy causes carbon dioxide emissions, producing substitution costs, and that harvested woody biomass affects the ability of a forest to act as a carbon sink. We extend the traditional Faustmann (1849) rotation model to include nutrient load damage, biodiversity benefits, and climate impacts. The empirical analysis is based on Finnish data from a catchment experiment carried out on drained peatland forests. The empirical results show that under a carbon neutral bioenergy policy, whole-tree harvesting with stump removal produces the highest net social benefits. However, if a carbon non-neutral bioenergy policy is assumed, the net social benefits are greater under stem-only harvesting.     

Effects of bioenergy production on environmental sustainability: a preliminary study based on expert opinions in Italy and Turkey

In future decades, initiatives on biomass-based energy development in Europe should reduce fossil fuel dependence and help to combat climate change as required by the conference of the parties 21. In this context, forest biomass can play a key role within the bioenergy sector due to its high growth potential. The use of forest biomass for energy has positive and negative effects on other ecosystem services, on stand characteristics, and on forest management practices. The aim of this study is to analyse the effects of forest bioenergy production on six ecosystem services (biodiversity, recreation, landscape aesthetics, carbon sequestration, soil erosion protection, water quality). These effects have been assessed by 80 experts in two countries (Italy and Turkey), considering two different forest management practices (clear-cutting of coppices and woody residue removal after felling in high forests). The results show that coppice clear-cutting has negative effects on almost all ecosystem services according to the experts’ opinions. The highest negative effects are on landscape aesthetics and soil protection. The effects of woody residue removal on biodiversity, carbon sequestration, soil erosion protection, and water quality are considered negative by the experts, while the effects on recreation activities and landscape aesthetics are considered positive. The highest negative effects of this forest management scenario are on soil protection and biodiversity. The experts’ opinions about the effects of forest management practices on ecosystem services can provide information to understand the environmental sustainability of bioenergy development in future years.     

洪湖湿地生态系统服务价值研究概述

洪湖湿地是中国第七大淡水湖和湖北省最大湖泊,它是荆江和长江的水位调节器。洪湖湿地是一种重要的湿地生态系统,具有多种效益。生态功能主要有涵养水源与调蓄洪水、调节气候、降解污染、固定CO_2与释放O_2、控制侵蚀与保护土壤、营养循环和生物栖息地。直接的产品用途主要有供水与储水、湿地动植物产品、能源生产、水运、休闲与旅游和研究与教育基地。洪湖湿地属性主要有生物多样性和社会文化重要性。尽管过去曾有研究其功能价值,但是仍有不足,需进一步加大研究,为洪湖湿地保护与恢复提供数据支撑,实现湿地资源合理利用。     

Effects of land use change on biodiversity and ecosystem services in tropical montane cloud forests of Mexico

Tropical montane cloud forests deliver important goods and services to society, such as timber, the supply and purification of fresh water, and carbon sequestration. In spite of their relevance, current deforestation rates are very high, at the expense of affecting the provision of ecosystem services. We explore the impact of land use change in terms of provision of ecosystem services by following two approaches, one very detailed (focused on hydrological services – water quality) and another one with a broader perspective (at a large scale and considering the ecosystem service value (ESV) of several ecosystems and their ecosystem services at the same time). In the highlands of the State of Veracruz, previously forested lands were converted into coffee plantations and cattle ranches. To evaluate the role of species composition and community structure on water quality, we studied nine small watersheds (<15 ha) covered by pristine cloud forest, coffee plantations and cultivated grassland (three each). Species richness of the three land use types was similar, although species composition was as different as 90%. Overall species diversity as well as that of woody species, and growth form diversities decreased in the transformed land uses. Water quality of streams flowing through these watersheds declined: nutrients (nitrate), conductivity, cations, chloride and suspended solids were lowest in the forest streams and highest in streams from coffee watersheds, whereas grasslands were intermediate. We also calculated ecosystem service values (using the transfer value method) and estimated economic market–non-market gains and losses owing to land transformation. Loss of natural ecosystems may imply a significant economic loss to society in terms of ecosystem services, although market gains may still lead land owners to land conversion because revenues are higher. Adequate Payment for Ecosystem Services may be a good option to prevent deforestation, but the compensation should be at least equal to the opportunity cost of the promoted land use. Our estimates are indicative of the urgent need to go beyond water quantity as the most relevant ecosystem service considered in PES schemes.     

Making Tropical Succession and Landscape Reforestation Successful

Forests are dynamic ecosystems, spatial mosaics of localized disturbances and regenerating vegetation. Following forest conversion to human land uses, expanding forest cover follows four different modes of reforestation: (a) spontaneous natural regeneration; (b) assisted natural regeneration; (c) agroforestry; and (d) commercial tree plantations. Natural regeneration fundamentally depends on the alignment of ecological and social factors at landscape scales. A deeper socioecological understanding of reforestation in the tropics will lead to the development of effective policies and governance structures that enhance forest cover and ecosystem services, protect biodiversity, and improve forest-dependent livelihoods.     

龙岩市森林生态系统服务价值评价

采用龙岩市2011年森林资源与城乡绿化统计数据,从调节气候、净化大气环境、固碳释氧、涵养水源、保护生物多样性5方面对龙岩市森林生态系统进行价值评估。结果表明,龙岩市林业用地、城区人居林和乡村人居林3个不同地域的森林生态系统产生的生态服务价值分别为2 204.5亿元、1.92亿元和0.72亿元,各项生态服务价值由大到小依次为调节气候、涵养水源、固碳释氧、净化大气环境、保护生物多样性。     

REDD+ initiatives for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem services: harmonizing sets of standards for national application

In the context of growing concerns about environmental aspects of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (acronym REDD+), we conducted a comparative analysis of three sets of globally-applicable standards and one instrument of REDD+ initiatives for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem services: (1) social and environmental principles and criteria, (2) REDD+ social and environmental standards, (3) climate, community, and biodiversity project design standards, and (4) strategic environmental and social assessment. We found that their projected proximal outcomes for biodiversity and ecosystem service treatments, and approaches to achieve them, are not uniform (e.g., differences in spatial coverage for expecting positive impacts, prioritized REDD+ activities, and expected level of rigor in biodiversity and ecosystem service monitoring). We also found that all four include identification of the priority areas for biodiversity and ecosystem services, plus monitoring and mitigation of the negative impacts of REDD+ activities. These all require substantial time and resources to fully address what the three standards and the instrument actually stipulate. We thus propose options for harmonizing their use to facilitate scaling-up of efforts to strengthen safeguards, from the project level to the national level, while respecting individual national contexts and taking advantage of each standard’s characteristics.     

乌拉圭林业的经验与启示

近 10多年来乌拉圭林业迅速崛起,成为潜在的世界木材主要出口国。意识到国际市场上木材需求量不断增长、价格稳定,1987年调整林业发展方向,重点发展出口导向型商业人工林。借鉴新西兰和智利的经验,通过补贴造林、减免税收、软贷款等优惠政策和刺激措施,加上地势平坦、气候土壤条件优越、人力资源素质高、社会经济秩序稳定以及交通便利,吸引了众多国内外投资者对人工林的大量投资,投资的年内部收益率大约是14%～27%。但是,大量采用桉树和松树等外来树种营建速生丰产林,会面临地力衰退和生物多样性丧失的危险。     

生物多样性与生态系统服务关系综评

生物多样性与生态系统服务（ES）属生态学前沿性基础研究主题,对二者关系的研究其意义更为重大。但二者关系缺乏因果性研究,更缺少数据论证。本文研究旨在列举有关研究成果,以论证和评估二者的关系。Cardinale等根据1 700余篇有关论文研究结果,将生物多样性与ES关系分为正相关、负相关和混合的3类并统计投票票数,按票数统计结果证明生物多样性与ES中的9项服务基本上是保持正相关关系。Vos等提出在上述二者的关系评估中,应重视地理信息中有关生态系统功能有效性和可靠性信息的利用,即根据国家自然网络（NNN）和绿色基础设施（GI）提供的地理信息并结合论文信息,对ES与生物多样性关系进行评估。综合上述二者数据证明生物多样性对农作物、渔业、饲养业、木材产量、碳汇、水净化、土壤肥力、病虫害防治、授粉、野生食品与果品、休憩保健与美学欣赏等基本上具有正相关影响,但也存在既有正相关又有负相关或负相关关系。文中综述了生物多样性对生态功能和生态系统服务的影响,并提出生物多样性与生态系统服务关系未来研究重点。     

Scaling issues in forest ecosystem management and how to address them with models

Scaling is widely recognized as a central issue in ecology. The associated cross-scale interactions and process transmutations make scaling (i.e. a change in spatial or temporal grain and extent) an important issue in understanding ecosystem structure and functioning. Moreover, current concepts of ecosystem stewardship, such as sustainability and resilience, are inherently scale-dependent. The importance of scale and scaling in the context of forest management is likely to further increase in the future because of the growing relevance of ecosystem services beyond timber production. As a result, a consideration of processes both below (e.g. leaf-level carbon uptake in the context of climate change mitigation) and above (e.g. managing for biodiversity conservation at the landscape scale) the traditional focus on the stand level is required in forest ecosystem management. Furthermore, climate change will affect a variety of ecosystem processes across scales, ranging from photosynthesis (tree organs) to disturbance regimes (landscape scale). Assessing potential climate change impacts on ecosystem services thus requires a multi-scale perspective. However, scaling issues have received comparatively little attention in the forest management community to date. Our objectives here are thus first, to synthesize scaling issues relevant to forest management and second, to elucidate ways of dealing with complex scaling problems by highlighting examples of how they can be addressed with ecosystem models. We have focused on three current management issues of particular importance in European forestry: (1) climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration, (2) multi-functional stand management for biodiversity and non-timber goods and services and (3) improving the resilience to natural disturbances. We conclude that taking into account the full spatiotemporal heterogeneity and dynamics of forest ecosystems in management decision-making is likely to make management more robust to increasing environmental and societal pressures. Models can aid this process through explicitly accounting for system dynamics and changing conditions, operationally addressing the complexity of cross-scale interactions and emerging properties. Our synthesis indicates that increased attention to scaling issues can help forest managers to integrate traditional management objectives with emerging concerns for ecosystem services and therefore deserves more attention in forestry.     

Agroforestry for ecosystem services and environmental benefits: an overview

Agroforestry systems are believed to provide a number of ecosystem services; however, until recently evidence in the agroforestry literature supporting these perceived benefits has been lacking. This special issue brings together a series of papers from around the globe to address recent findings on the ecosystem services and environmental benefits provided by agroforestry. As prelude to the special issue, this paper examines four major ecosystem services and environmental benefits of agroforestry: (1) carbon sequestration, (2) biodiversity conservation, (3) soil enrichment and (4) air and water quality. Past and present evidence clearly indicates that agroforestry, as part of a multifunctional working landscape, can be a viable land-use option that, in addition to alleviating poverty, offers a number of ecosystem services and environmental benefits. This realization should help promote agroforestry and its role as an integral part of a multifunctional working landscape the world over.     

基于InVEST模型的森林生态系统服务功能评估研究进展

准确评估森林生态系统服务功能,是实现森林资源健康、可持续发展,更好地发挥森林生态服务功能的重要保障。InVEST模型具备驱动数据简单易获取、定量化评估精度高、评估过程和结果空间表达明晰、情景模拟预测功能强大的特点,已被广泛应用于森林生态系统服务功能评估的多个方面。文中概述InVEST模型的原理,重点对该模型在森林生态系统服务功能评估的几个热点应用进行详细介绍;系统评述国内外在应用InVEST模型对森林生态系统的碳储量、水源涵养、水土保持和生物多样性等服务功能进行评估方面取得的研究进展,总结各类应用中存在的局限和不足;提出利用InVEST模型开展森林生态系统服务功能评估的研究展望。     

树种选择与配置对森林生态系统服务的影响

我国森林面积和蓄积量连续增长,但造林树种单一、林分幼龄化、径级持续偏小、单位面积蓄积量低。在气候变化挑战及全球经济一体化大背景下,如何发挥森林在木材生产、生物多样性保护、固碳、涵养水源及社会文化等方面的多重服务功能以满足经济社会发展对森林的多元化需求,是我国现代林业建设的当务之急。文中通过梳理国内外相关文献,分析不同树种与配置模式和不同森林经营选择对森林生态系统服务的影响,以及对森林生态系统服务影响的模拟预测方法与工具,进而总结当前研究与实践的总体趋势,以期为我国树种选择及其优化配置、增强森林生态系统服务功能提供决策参考。