Influence of calcium pretreatment on pectic substance evolution in cucumber fruit (cucumis sativus) duringbotrytis cinerea infection

The role of calcium in protecting plant tissue from infection byBotrytis cinerea was studied in cucumber fruit. A self-defense reaction, consisting of an increase in cell-wall-bound Ca, occurred in the plant tissue after an injury or an infection. However, it was not sufficient to protect the tissue from the spread of the fungus, which is accompanied by pectic substance digestion. The degradation induced mainly a decrease in acid- and chelator-soluble pectin levels, and an increase in water-soluble pectin. Ca treatment of the fruit prior to infection could amplify the cell-wall-bound Ca and therefore lessen pectin digestion by fungal pectinolytic enzymes.     

温度调控对番茄灰霉病菌侵染的影响

从群体的角度研究了番茄灰霉病菌对温度的适应性,结果表明灰霉病菌孢子的萌发适温在15～25℃,最适温度为20℃。15～25℃适宜菌丝生长、侵染与扩展,20℃为最适温度。30℃以上病害发展受到抑制。低温有利于病菌产孢,最适温度为15℃。变温研究表明,在一天中,随着30℃以上高温时间的增长,病菌(菌丝)的致病力呈下降趋势,6 h以上高温能够限制病害发展。     

湿度调控对番茄灰霉病菌侵染的影响

 番茄灰霉病菌(Botrytes cinerea)的分生孢子萌发需要高湿的环境,一般要求相对湿度在80%以上或水滴中萌发最好。在适温下,随着湿度的增加,病菌致病性增强,孢子在相对湿度85%以上、菌丝在相对湿度80%以上的高湿环境能够发生侵染,并形成危害性的软腐斑。在一天中高湿的时间直接影响番茄灰霉病的发生,高湿(相对湿度超过85%)时间8h以上病菌才能够连续侵染。     

Effect of microclimate and nutrients on development of cucumber gray mold (Botrytis cinerea)

Infection of young parthenocarpic cucumber fruits byBotrytis cinerea begins in the petals. Removing petals or washing nutrients from the flower significantly reduced infection. Germination of conidia occurred at relative humidity (r.h.) above 92%, but when water deposition on artificial surfaces was prevented, germination did not occur even at 98% r.h. Germination of conidia on petals is promoted by deposition of an aqueous film not visible on the petal surface by the bare eye (but demonstrable by CoCl₂). Provided there is a film of water on the surface of the host, germination and the infection process occur at a wide range of temperatures up to 25 °C. Pre-exposure of cucumber plants at temperatures as high as 30 °C or as low as 8 °C, prior to their infection and incubation under conditions conducive to gray mold, resulted in greater severity of the disease on young fruits or leaves as compared with plants previously incubated at 10-25 °C. The relevance of these results to cultural control of gray mold is discussed.     

The influence of Thrips obscuratus on infection and contamination of kiwifruit by Botrytis cinerea

Infestation of kiwifruit flowers by Thrips obscuratus , and inoculation with Botrytis cinerea , increased the amount of flower infection, external contamination and internal infection of fruit at harvest. Combination of these treatments was synergistic. The mechanisms of this role of T. obscuratus in the epidemiology of B. cinerea and development of stem-end rot after cool storage are discussed in relation to commercial production, harvesting and handling procedures. Significant reductions in inoculum available for fruit infection may be achievable by control of populations of T. obscuratus in orchards during flowering.     

Root exudation of prometryn and its metabolites from Chinese celery (Apium graveolens)

Root exudates from Chinese celery (Apium graveolens) and Chinese cabbage (pak choi, Brassica chinensis) plants treated by prometryn, an herbicide, were qualitatively and quantitatively investigated and compared under hydroponic cultivation. Prometryn and its metabolites released into the nutrient solution were analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatograph coupled with orbitrap mass spectrometer to investigate whether this xylem-mobile herbicide is exuded from the roots. The results showed that celery and pak choi had different root exudation profiles. Celery metabolized prometryn to prometryn sulfoxide and released both compounds from the roots. In contrast, pak choi barely metabolized or actively released prometryn from the roots. The concentration of prometryn sulfoxide released from celery after 96 hr was 21 µg/L, which was nearly one-third that of released prometryn. Our results indicate that the root exudation and translocation of xylem-mobile herbicides could be significant in plants and are highly species dependent compared with phloem-mobile herbicides.     

Biological control ofBotrytis cinerea in residues and flowers of Rose (Rosa hybrida)

Microbial isolates from living petals, petal residues and leaf residues of rose, and from laboratory collections, were evaluated for control ofBotrytis cinerea in rose. In leaf residues artificially infested withB. cinerea, isolates of the filamentous fungiGliocladium roseum, FR136 (unidentified) andTrichoderma inhamatum reduced sporulation of the pathogen by >90%, other filamentous fungi were 25–90% effective, and those of yeasts and bacteria were <50% effective. In artificially inoculated petal residues, no microbe reduced sporulation ofB. cinerea by >75%, but isolates ofCladosporium oxysporum and four yeasts were 51–75% effective, and three filamentous fungi, eight yeasts andBacillus subtilis isolates were 26–50% effective. Isolates ofT. inhamatum, C. oxysporum andG. roseum performed best againstB. cinerea among isolates evaluated in leaf residues naturally infested with the pathogen and indigenous microorganisms. Totals of ten isolates of filamentous fungi (includingC. oxysporum andC. cladosporioides), two of yeasts and five ofBacillus subtilis completely prevented lesion production byB. cinerea in detached petals, and a further six isolates of filamentous fungi (includingG. roseum) and six yeasts were 90–99% effective. Isolates ofC. oxysporum, C. cladosporioides andB. subtilis, the most effective microorganisms againstB. cinerea in flower buds, reduced number of lesions in the range of 42–65% compared with 59–89% for à standard fungicide (vinclozolin). It is suggested that application of leading antagonists Jo living rose leaves and flowers should optimize control of inoculum production byB. cinerea when the tissues die. Optimal biocontrol of lesion production in flower buds requires a better understanding of the microenvironment of petals.     

Effects of terbinafine on growth, squalene, and steryl ester content of a celery cell suspension culture

The allylamine terbinafine inhibited growth of a celery (Apium graveolens) cell suspension culture (I₅₀ = 90 μM) and blocked the action of squalene epoxidase, resulting in an accumulation of squalene and a decrease in the sterol content of the cells. Celery cells were tolerant to squalene accumulation; inhibition of growth of cultures was associated with a fall in the free sterol content below about 1 μg sterol/mg dry wt of cells. At Day 14, untreated celery cells contained about 60% of the total sterol in the esterified form. However, the steryl ester pool was considerably lower in terbinafine-treated cells which may reflect an attempt to maintain the free sterol content above a threshold value. The composition of free sterols of terbinafine-treated cells was different from control cultures, suggesting that terbinafine has a second site of inhibition on the pathway to major sterols in plants.     

Botrytis cinerea in stored cabbage: the use of germ-tube growth on leaf discs as an indicator of potential head rot

The growth of germ-tubes of Botrytis cinerea at 24°C on leaf discs of six cabbage cultivars taken from heads prior to storage, was directly related to the proportion of whole heads developing rots caused by Botrytis during storage for 6 months at 1–2°C. Dipping heads in iprodione before cold storage substantially reduced losses, particularly in the most susceptible cultivar (Decema Extra). Both leaf disc assays of germ-tube growth and studies of whole heads in store indicated significant and similarly ranked differences in cultivar susceptibility.     

Influence of environmental conditions in a glasshouse on conidia ofBotrytis cinerea and on post-harvest infection of rose flowers

Quantification and horizontal distribution of air-borne inoculum ofBotrytis cinerea in a rose crop in a glasshouse of 300 m² was studied in 1991 and 1992. Conidia ofB. cinerea were caught in spore traps consisting of an agar medium selective forB. cinerea in Petri dishes placed within the crop, at flower height 1 m above the ground. Spore catches were counted as colonies, after incubation. Lesions due to conidial infection were counted on petals of rose flowers, also after incubation. Relative humidity (RH) and temperature within the glasshouse and global radiation and windspeed outside were recorded during the experiments. The horizontal distribution ofB. cinerea in a rose crop grown under glass was fairly uniform in both years. In 1991 a clear seasonal pattern in the number of colonies could not be found. In 1992 the number of colonies were high in August, September and October. The number of lesions on rose flowers showed a distinct pattern in both years. In August, September and October many lesions were counted whereas in the other months few lesions appeared. In linear regression analysis, variation in numbers of colonies (spore catches) could not be explained by environmental factors recorded during the experiments. Linear regression accounted for 76 and 63% of the variation in the number of lesions on rose flowers in 1991 and 1992, in terms of relative humidity (positively correlated), global radiation outside the glasshouse (negatively correlated) and, numbers of colonies on spore traps (positively correlated). The results in the rose crop suggest that RH, global radiation and spore density in glasshouses are important variables in regulating the numbers of lesions during storage and transport. The numbers of spores in glasshouses are dependent on the production system. A glasshouse with a system resulting in wet dead tissue on the ground give higher amount of spores in the glasshouse air and through that high numbers of lesions on flowers. On roses outside the glasshouses very high numbers of lesions were counted sometimes, mostly during and after rain showers, as a result of rain-deposition of spores onto the flowers.     

Resistance to diethofencarb (NPC) in benomyl-resistant field isolates of Botrytis cinerea

Based on the 'negative cross-resistance' phenomenon between N -phenylcarbamates and benzimidazole fungicides, the fungicidal mixture of carbendazim + diethofencarb (MBC + NPC) was introduced, to control Botrytis cinerea phenotypes which are either sensitive to benzimidazoles and resistant to NPC (wild-type: Ben^S NPC^R). or resistant to benzimidazoles and sensitive to NPC(Ben^R NPC^S). At one out of four sites where the MBC + NPC mixture was used in commercial cucumber greenhouses, grey mould control failed and a new phenotype of B. cinerea was found. The new phenotype was resistant to benzimidazoles, as was 100% of the population screened in the four sites, but retained resistance to NPC. Accordingly, the new phenotype was designated Ben^R NPC^R. It was pathogenic on cucumber seedlings.     

Control of infection and sporulation ofBotrytis cinerea on bean and tomato by saprophytic bacteria and fungi

Sixty isolates of saprophytic microorganisms were screened for their ability to reduce the severity of grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) infection and sporulation. Isolates of the bacteriaXanthomonas maltophilia, Bacillus pumilus, Lactobacillus sp., andPseudomonas sp. and the fungusGliocladium catenulatum reduced germination of conidia of the pathogen and controlled disease on bean and tomato plants. Their activity under growth room conditions was good, consistent, and similar to the activity of the known biocontrol agent,Trichoderma harzianum T39 (non-formulated). Although the tested isolates may for nutrients with the germinating conidia ofB. cinerea, resistance induced in the host by live or dead cells were also found to be involved. Inhibitory compounds were not detected on treated leaves. Sporulation ofB. cinerea after its establishment on leaves was also reduced by the above mentioned isolates and byPenicillium sp.,Arthrinium montagnei, Ar. phaeospermum, Sesquicillium candelabrum, Chaetomium globosum, Alternaria alternata, Ulocladium atrum, andT. viride. These sporulation-inhibiting fungi did not reduce the infection of leaves byB. cinerea. Most of these selected fungi and bacteria were capable of reducing lesion expansion.     

Influence of fungicidal control of cucumber and tomato grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) on fruit yield

The fungicides tebuconazole, tebuconazole + dichlofluanid, fenethanil, diethofencarb + carbendazim, and vinclozolin combined with chlorothalonil were tested for their ability to control grey mould (Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Fr.) of cucumber and tomato grey mould in greenhouses under commercial conditions. In winter 1987/88 the number of diseased female fruits of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) was reduced by diethofencarb + carbendazim (2·5 mg dm^?3 each) by 93% and by tebuconazole (2·5 mg dm^?3)(phytotoxic when alone) or tebuconazole (1 mg dm^?3) + dichlofluanid (4 mg dm^?3) by 54–57%. Vinclozolin (5 mg dm^?3) + chlorothalonil (25 mg dm^?3) significantly reduced disease incidence on fruits by 40%. Infection foci on cucumber stems were significantly decreased by vinclozolin + chlorothalonil. A more pronounced decrease was obtained with diethofencarb + carbendazim, tebuconazole, or tebuconazole + dichlofluanid. During the season of winter 1988/89, tebuconazole + dichlofluanid (1·5 + 6 and 3 + 12 mg dm^?3) and RH7592 (1 mg dm^?3) significantly reduced diseased fruits by 30–71%. Grey mould of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) leaves was reduced by more than 90% and on fruits by 78–87% when tebuconazole + dichlofluanid (1·5 + 6 and 3 + 12 mg dm^?3) or diethofencarb + carbendazim (2·5 mg dm^?3 each) were applied. Yields of cucumber fruits of the common parthenocarpic cv. Kasem 292 were weighed. There was no correlation between disease level and yield in any experiment, plot or date except for two measurements. Compesation in fruit production by the plant may be regarded as the reason for no positive yield response to efficient control. The possibility of reducing fungicide application is discussed. Control of grey mould on tomato resulted in yield increase.     

Use of nitrate non-utilising (Nit) mutants to determine vegetative compatibility in Botryotinia fuckeliana (Botrytis cinerea)

Nitrate non-utilising (Nit) mutants of six field strains and three single-ascospore strains of Botryotinia fuckeliana were selected by plating mycelial plugs onto a nitrate-containing minimal medium amended with chlorate. Mutants were characterised by growth responses on minimal medium amended with various sole nitrogen sources. For each parental strain two mutants were produced: nit1, defective in nitrate reductase apoenzyme; and NitM, defective in the molybdenum cofactor pathway. Complementation on nitrate minimal medium was observed between nit1 and NitM mutants from the same parent in all instances. However, complementation was not observed between any such combinations when the mutants were derived from different parents. It is concluded that a vegetative incompatibility system operates in B. fuckeliana resulting in multiple vegetative compatibility groups. One of the single-ascospore strains was derived from a cross between two of the field strains, indicating that new compatibility groups can be generated during sexual reproduction. Mycelial interaction zones were formed between all parental strains when they were paired on NaCl-amended medium, indicating congruence between mycelial incompatibility and vegetative incompatibility.     

An epidemic of celery mosaic potyvirus in celeriac (Apium graveolens var. rapaceum) in the Netherlands

An annually recurring virus epidemic has caused severe damage and sometimes total yield loss in crops of celeriac in the south-west of the Netherlands for several years since 1969. Celery leatent virus, cucumber mosaic cucumovirus and tobacco rattle tobravirus were isolated from diseased plants, but a potyvirus was the most prevalent virus present. It did not cause local lesions inChenopodium amaranticolor orC. quinoa and did not infect other non-Umbelliferae. The virus was identified as celery mosaic potyvirus and confirmed to be the causal agent.Field surveys from 1971 to 1977 showed a rapid increase of disease incidence in consecutive years, soon leading to near-abandonment of the crop in the original centre of cultivation and its northward translocation, gradually followed by the disease. Incidence in fields often increased from zero by the end of July, when symptoms first appeared, to 100% early during September. In 1976 final incidence was 75 to 100% in 41% of the fields inspected. Temporary protection with aphid-proof cages showed that first infection occurred about three weeks before symptoms appear and not before the beginning of July, and that the virus may still spread after late September.When testing samples from other umbelliferous crops and wild species near infested crops, several viruses were detected but not celery mosaic virus. The virus may be introduced from yet unknown distant sources, as also suggested by the pattern of spread in crops of celeriac.Celeriac cultivars differe considerably in resistance to the virus, but resistant cultivars generally are of poorer quality for consumption and processing than the original highly sensitive cultivar. In recent years cultivation has recovered considerably with the advent of new cultivars.Samenvatting Sinds 1969 trad gedurende een aantal opeenvolgende jaren in de provincie Zeeland in knolselderij een ernstige virusziekte epidemisch op. Vaak mislukten gewassen geheel. Uit viruszieke planten konden het latente selderijvirus, komkommermozaïekvirus, tabaksratelvirus en een potyvirus worden geïsoleerd. Het laatste kwam echter het meest voor en was in zijn optreden gecorreleerd met de voor de epidemie karakteristieke symptomen. Het kon op grond van waardplanten en symptomen, deeltjesvorm en grootte (ca 780 nm) en serologie worden geïdentificeerd als het selderijmozaïekvirus. In de kas konden in selderij de voor de ziekte kenmerkende symptomen ermee worden gereproduceerd.Reeds in 1970 waren in de omgeving van Kruiningen en Waarde in 12 van de 25 geïnspecteerde velden meer dan 60% van de planten ziek. Een systematische inventarisatie gedurende 1971 tot en met 1977 toonde aan dat de ziekte in die periode snel verder om zich heen greep en de teelt in het oorspornkelijke teeltgebied niet meer lonend maakte. De ziekte volgde echter geleidelijk de noordwaarts uitwijkende teelt. In 1976 was 41% van de 117 geïnspecteerde velden voor meer dan 75% aangetast. In zulke velden kon het percentage zieke planten vanaf eind juli tot begin september toenemen van 0 tot nagenoeg 100.De eerste symptomen treden jaarlijks rond eind juli of begin augustus op. Proeven, waarbij veldjes met planten gedurende bepaalde perioden werden afgedekt met bladluisdichte gaaskooien, toonden aan dat de eerste infectie optreedt ca 3 weken (2–4) voor het verschijnen van de eerste symptomen en op zijn vroegst begin juli, en dat verdere verspreiding nog tot na 20 september plaatsvindt. De besmettingsbronnen zijn nog steeds niet gevonden. De wijze van optreden van de ziekte in het veld doet vermoeden dat het virus niet afkomstig is van dichtbij voorkomende wilde planten.Er blijken grote rasverschillen in resistentie te bestaan. De voor consumptie en conservenverwerking gewilde rassen, waaronder vooral Roem van Zwijndrecht, zijn alle zeer kwetsbaar. Met het geleidelijk naar voren komen van meer resistante, en voor de export vooral gevraagde anthocyanine-vrije rassen, zoals Monarch en Iram, heeft de knolselderijteelt zich in Zeeland grotendeels hersteld.     

内蒙古库布齐沙漠苍鹭巢址选择研究

2014年3-7月,采用野外直接观察法和样方法在内蒙古鄂尔多斯市库布齐沙漠对苍鹭(Ardeac cinerea)巢址与影响其选择的因子进行研究,共发现苍鹭的巢658个,所有的巢都建在高度为20.31±0.92m(n=56)的杨树上.t-检验结果显示,杨树的高度、胸径、盖度、植株密度4个参数在巢址样方(n=22)与对照样方(n=28)之间存在显著差异,巢区距道路、村庄、和池塘距离的3个参数存在极显著差异(p＜0.01).主成分分析结果表明,苍鹭倾向于距池塘较近、道路较远,植株密度适中、盖度较高的地方营巢,食物和人类的干扰条件是巢区选择的关键因素.     

Heat treatment for the control of rose and carnation grey mould (Botrytis cinerea)

Thermal dip treatment for flower heads was found effective against grey mould of roses. Dipping of flowers in tap-water at 50 C for 20 40 s was more effective than at higher or lower temperatures and than for longer treatments. The treatment was effective in five out of six rose cultivars and in one carnation cultivar. A 60, reduction in disease severity following the treatment was observed in flowers naturally infected by Botrytis cinerea, whereas the treatment was not effective against artificial infection of flowers. Conditioning of flowers for 2 days at 10 C and high relative humidity before incubation under grey-mould-conducive conditions (15 C. high humidity) increased the efficacy of the thermal treatment. Moreover, the combination of heat with 3 mM catechol was additively more efficient in reducing grey mould. The surfactant Tween 20 (001 %) improved the effect of treatment at 45 C for 20 s. A combination of heat with the fungicide chlorothalonil did not improve effectiveness, whereas when polyoxin B was combined with heat it was better than either treatment alone. The temperature of petals at the edge and centre of flower reached 37 and 27 C, respectively, at the end of a 20-s incubation period in 50 C water. Conidia treated at 34-40 C for 10-20 s incited 60% less severe disease than conidia treated at 25 C in water.     

The use of antioxidants (free radical scavengers) to control grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) and white mould (Sclerotinia sclerotiomm) in various crops

Eighteen free radical scavengers (antioxidants) were tested for their ability to control grey mould. Most of the compounds reduced disease significantly in at least one of the test hosts–leaves of tomato, pepper, Senecio sp., bean, eggplant, or rose flowers; however, the effective concentration varied between 0.1 and 100 m m . Selected antioxidants were tested further. Butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT), tannic acid, ascorbic acid and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) at a concentration of 1 .0 m m controlled grey mould of tomato fruits. All these compounds except BHT controlled the disease on cucumber fruits. Antioxidants affected Rhizopus stolonifer on grape berries but not Botrytis cinerea or Aspergillus spp. Some combinations of antioxidants were found to be more effective than either compound alone when tested on pepper or tomato. The synergists ascorbic acid and citric acid improved the control activity of BHT, propyl gallate, benzoic acid and tert -butylhydroquinone on tomato leaves. Ethylene production was inhibited in tomato leaves treated with propyl gallate, ascorbic acid and benzoic acid, but not in pepper leaves. Ethephon or H₂O₂ increased the severity of grey mould on leaves of Senecio sp. Their effect was controlled by BHT and benzoic acid or by BHT, respectively. Four to six compounds reduced linear growth of B. cinerea isolates in culture at a concentration of 1.0 m m , and six more compounds were effective at 10.0 m m . However just five compounds inhibited conidial germination at the high concentration alone. Gluconic acid lactone, thiourea and propyl gallate reduced Sclerotinia sclerotiomm on lettuce by 51-76%. The multiple activity of antioxidants on the host plant interaction is discussed.     

Preventive and post‐infection control of Botrytis cinerea in tomato plants by hexanoic acid

The antifungal activity of hexanoic acid on the phytopathogen Botrytis cinerea was studied. This chemical inhibited both spore germination and mycelial growth in vitro in a concentration‐ and pH‐dependent manner, and stopped spore germination at a very early stage, preventing germ‐tube development. The minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) for in vitro spore germination was 16 mm . Hexanoic acid also inhibited in vitro mycelial growth of germinated spores at an MFC of 12 mm . Studies performed to characterize the mechanisms underlying the antimicrobial effect of hexanoic acid showed that it alters fungal membrane permeability. In addition, hexanoic acid treatment increased the levels of spermine, spermidine, putrescine and cadaverine in B. cinerea mycelia. Spray application of hexanoic acid at fungicidal concentrations on 4‐week‐old tomato plants prior to fungal inoculation reduced necrosis diameter by approximately 60%. Application of the same hexanoic acid concentrations on previously infected plants reduced further necrosis expansion by around 30%. The results suggest that this chemical acts as a preventive and curative fungicide. Interestingly, treatments with hexanoic acid at concentrations below the MFC in hydroponic solution prior to fungal inoculation significantly reduced necrosis area. These results suggest an inducer effect of plant responses for hexanoic acid treatments at these concentrations. Hexanoic acid is a good candidate for safe antifungal treatments for the control of B. cinerea, which is responsible for many economic losses on fruits, vegetables and flowers.