Indigenous Bali cattle is most suitable for sustainable small farming in Indonesia

Livestock husbandry is essential for Indonesia. This study reviews cattle characteristics and husbandry methods in the country with special interest in describing the importance of indigenous breeds of cattle. As a conclusion, the Bali cattle ought to be considered the most suitable indigenous cattle breed for the low-input, high stress production system still practised by millions of families in Indonesia.     

Observations on Banteng cattle in Sabah

Summary Records kept between 1966 and 1971 on a herd of domesticated Banteng cattle(Bos (Bibos) banteng) in Sabah are analysed for reproductive and productive data. Birth weights (male and female respectively) were16·88 kg and15·64 kg. Growth rates for the first 6 months were0·33 kg per day (male) and0·30 kg per day (female). Age at first calving was32·37±4·76 months and calving interval12·8±2·12 months. Mortality was less than5 per cent per annum. Under conditions of nutritional stress, Banteng cattle are able to maintain body condition and high fertility (93 per cent). A timid temperament limits the utilisation of these cattle under extensive conditions.

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Sumario Los registros mantenidos entre 1966 y 1971 en un hato de ganado Bantang domesticado (Bos (Bibos) banteng) en Saba son analizados por datos de reproducción y producción. Los pesos al nacimiento (machos y hembras respectivamente) fueron de 16,88 kg y 15,64 kg. Las tasas de crecimiento para los primeros seis meses fue de 0,33 kg por dia (macho) y 0,30 kg por dia (hembra). La edad al primer parto fue de 32,37±4,76 meses y el intervalo entre partos 12,8±2,12 meses. La mortalidad fue menor del 5 por ciento por a?o. Bajo condiciones de stress nutricional, el gandao Banteng mantiene la condición corporal y una alta fertilidad, 93 por ciento. El temperamento tímido limita la utilidad de este ganado bajo condiciones extensivas.

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Résumé Les performance enregistrées entre 1966 et 1971 sur un troupeau de Banteng domestiques (Bos bibos banteng) à Sabah ont été examinées tant en ce qui concerne la reproduction que la productivité. A la naissance, les poids des males et celui des femelles ont respectivement été de 16,88 kg et 15,64 kg. Les gains de poids, pour les six premiers mois, ont été de 0,33 kg par jour pour les males et 0,30 kg par jour pour les femelles. L'age au premier vêlage a été de 32,37±4,76 mois et les intervalles entre vêlages de 12,8±2,12 mois. La mortalité n'a pas atteint 5 p. 100 par ans. Dans des conditions alimentaires très difficile, le bétail Banteng est apte à se maintenir en bon état, avec une haute fertilité (93 p. 100). Le tempérament craintif du Banteng fait qu'il ne peut être complètement mis à profit dans les conditions de l'élevage extensif.

     

The origin of Indonesian cattle and conservation genetics of the Bali cattle breed

Both Bos indicus (zebu) and Bos javanicus (banteng) contribute to the Indonesian indigenous livestock, which is supposedly of a mixed species origin, not by direct breeding but by secondary cross-breeding. Here, the analysis of mitochondrial, Y-chromosomal and microsatellite DNA showed banteng introgression of 10-16% in Indonesian zebu breeds with East-Javanese Madura and Galekan cattle having higher levels of autosomal banteng introgression (20-30%) and combine a zebu paternal lineage with a predominant (Madura) or even complete (Galekan) maternal banteng origin. Two Madura bulls carried taurine Y-chromosomal haplotypes, presumably of French Limousin origin. There was no evidence for zebu introgression in five populations of the Bali cattle, a domestic form of the banteng.     

Buffalo and Bali cattle—Exploiting their reproductive behaviour and physiology

Summary Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Bali cattle (Bos sondaicus) occupy production niches in much of the developing world’s agricultural systems which in the developed world are occupied byBos indicus andBos taurus. Both the former species are better-adapted to these environments and systems. Both depend on population survival strategies different from each other’s and from those ofB. indicus andB. taurus. Water buffalo rely on longevity and late sexual maturity, while Bali cattle rely on high conception rates and sacrifice of juveniles when the population is under stress. Knowledge of these different strategies will help in formulation of management strategies for maximising nett reproductive rates. This paper briefly describes each species, reviews its survival strategies and summarises the available data on the reproductive characteristics of each.

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Résumé Le buffle d’eau (Bubalus bubalis) et le bovin de Bali (Bos sondaicus), occupent dans les systèmes agraires de bien des pays en voie de développement des crénaux de production qui sont l’apanage, dans les pays développés, deBos indicus etBos taurus. Les deux premières espèces sont l’une et l’autre mieux adaptées à ces environnments et à leurs systèmes agraires, mais toutes deux dépendent de stratégies de survie démographique à la fois différentes pour chacune et également de celles relatives àBos taurus etBos indicus. Pour le buffle d’eau, il s’agit de la longévité et d’une maturité sexuelle tardive alors que les taux élevés de conception et le sacrifice des jeunes sujets caractérisent le bovin balinais, lorsque la population est sous l’effet d’une pression quelconque. La connaissance de ces différentes stratégies contribuera à la formulation de règles de qestion des élevages, afin de maximiser les taux nets de reproduction. L’article décrit brièvement chaque espèce, passe en revue ses stratégies de survie et résume les données disponibles sur les caractéristiques de reproduction de chacune d’elles. Resumen El búfalo de agua (Bubalus bubalis) y el ganado Bali (Bos sondaicus), ocupan nichos productivos en los sistemas agrícolas de paises en vías de desarrollo industrial, nichos ocupados por elB. indicus y elB. taurus en países desarrollados. Ambas especies citadas al principio, están mejor adaptadas al ambiente y a los sistemas de producción. Ambos dependen de estratégias de supervivencia diferentes entre ellas y de aquellas exhibidas por elB. indicus y elB. taurus. E1 búfalo de agua, depende de longevidad y madurez sexual tardía, mientras que el ganado Bali depende de altas tasas de concepción y por ende del sacrificio de animales jóvenes cuando la población está bajo estrés. E1 conocimiento de las diferentes estratégias de supervivencia por ellos utilizadas, ayudará en la formulación de estratégias de manejo, para maximizar las tasas reproductivas netas. Este artículo describe brevemente cada especie, revisa las estratégias de supervivencia utilizadas y resume las características reproductivas de cada una de ellas.

     

Vascular lesions in lungs of Bali cattle with Jembrana disease.

Jembrana disease is an acute infectious disease of unknown etiology enzootic among Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) in Indonesia. Morphologic examination of 75 female Bali cattle between 18 months and 4 years old affected with Jembrana disease consistently revealed pulmonary granulomatous vascular lesions. The lesions were diffusely distributed throughout the lung. The principal lesion was the presence of a large number of intravascular macrophages that filled the lumina of pulmonary veins and pulmonary arteries of a vascular diameter of 20-200 microns, excluding the rest of blood cellular components. Concentric layers of perithelial cells also with plasma cells and macrophages were occasionally present around both veins and arteries. Infiltration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes or small lymphocytes was not seen. Destruction or necrosis of tissues or blood vessels was rarely seen. Because this vascular lesion was found in the lungs of all affected cattle examined, this change is useful for the postmortem diagnosis of Jembrana disease. Moreover, its presence could be used to distinguish Jembrana disease from malignant catarrhal fever and other lymphoreticular proliferative conditions that are frequently found among cattle in Indonesia.     

Evidence for a viral aetiology of Jembrana disease in Bali cattle.

Jembrana disease is an acute infectious disease of Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) in Indonesia. High titres of the infectious agent are present in plasma during the febrile phase of the disease. The size of the agent determined by membrane filtration was between 50 and 100 nm, indicating it is a virus and not a rickettsia as previously proposed. Spherical virus-like particles of 75 to 130 nm diameter with a smooth membrane and frequently with an eccentric nucleoid were detected by electron microscopy in plasma from infected animals. The virus replicated in mononuclear cell cultures of peripheral blood origin but not in other cell cultures. The virus and the associated disease have characteristics consistent with viruses in the family Retroviridae.     

Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle, buffaloes and horses in Indonesia

Cattle, buffaloes and horses in several areas of Indonesia were examined for evidence of infection with Trypanosoma evansi by the microhaematocrit centrifugation technique (MHCT) and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of antibodies to T. evansi. Evidence of infection was found in animals at each sampling site although differences were seen in prevalence rates between sites. Prevalence rates in buffalo were usually higher than in cattle in the same area while in horses they were much lower than in cattle or buffalo. An age-dependent prevalence rate was seen in buffalo and cattle with the highest rates seen in animals older than 2 years. These results concur with the view that T. evansi infection is widespread throughout most of the livestock-producing areas of Indonesia. The apparent lack of any obvious disease owing to T. evansi infection in the sampled animals suggests that a form of stability exists in most endemic areas which serves to ameliorate the effect of T. evansi infection and has an immunological basis linked to the parasite's limited antigenic diversity.     

Spermatogenesis in Bali cattle (Bos sondaicus) and hybrids with Bos indicus and Bos taurus

Semen quality, testis size and efficiency of sperm production in Bali cattle (Bos sondaicus) and hybrids with Bos indicus and Bos taurus were determined. Mean (+/- SEM) daily sperm production per gram of testis parenchyma (DSPG) in six purebred Bali bulls was 12.2 +/- 0.7 x 10(6). F1 B sondaicus cross B taurus bulls and F1 B sondaicus cross B indicus bulls were sterile. Spermatogenesis was arrested at the late primary spermatocyte stage. In 11 B sondaicus cross B indicus crosses, mean DSPG was lower than in the purebred B sondaicus, although four (one 1/4 B sondaicus, one 3/4 B sondaicus, one 5/8 B sondaicus inter se and one 3/8 B sondaicus inter se) exhibited DSPG levels similar to the foundation stock. Semen from those crossbreeds which exhibited complete spermatogenesis was more variable in terms of spermatozoal concentration, percentage of spermatozoa exhibiting progressive motility and levels of spermatozoal abnormalities. In crossbreeds where sperm production was reduced or absent, there was seminiferous epithelial dysfunction, manifested as an increased frequency of degenerative late pachytene and diplotene primary spermatocytes and germinal cells occurring later in the cycle, or in extreme cases, as complete arrest of spermatogenesis at the late primary spermatocyte stage.     

Evidence for the presence of two bovine lentiviruses in the cattle population of Bali

Antibodies directed against two bovine lentiviruses, Jembrana disease virus (JDV) and bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV), were detected in Balinese cattle sera using two new enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) based on the combination of capsid (CA) protein and transmembrane (TM) peptides derived from JDV or BIV sequences.

Twenty eight of the 77 sera tested on the JDV ELISA showed anti-JDV antibodies with an unequal distribution of seropositive animals throughout the different districts of Bali. Furthermore, when 17 of the JDV positive sera were tested on Western blot, using the same JDV CA antigen, only 13 were judged positive confirming that the ELISA was a more sensitive technique for the detection of seropositive animals. Finally, 9 of the 49 JDV seronegative animals showed anti-BIV antibodies when tested on BIV-specific ELISA.

These two ELISAs appeared to be highly sensitive for the detection of anti-JDV and anti-BIV antibodies. Moreover, for the first time, animals showing antibodies against BIV were identified on the main island of Bali and on the JDV-free Nusa Penida island.     

Isoenzyme analysis of stocks of trypanosomes isolated from cattle in Indonesia

Three trypanosome stocks isolated from cattle in Indonesia were shown to differ markedly from an Indonesian stock of Trypanosoma evansi on the basis of the isoenzyme banding patterns of 12 soluble enzymes. The results obtained for these stocks were not consistent with those reported for typical forms of T evansi but were very similar to enzyme patterns obtained for rodent adapted stocks of T vivax.     

Flow cytometric analysis of lymphocyte subset kinetics in Bali cattle experimentally infected with Jembrana disease virus

Jembrana disease virus (JDV) is an unusual bovine lentivirus that causes an acute and sometimes fatal disease after a short incubation period in Bali cattle (Bos javanicus). The pathological changes occur primarily in lymphoid tissues, which feature proliferating lymphoblastoid-like cells predominantly throughout parafollicular (T-cell) areas, and atrophy of follicles (B-cell) areas. Five Bali cattle were experimentally infected with JDV and all developed typical clinical signs of Jembrana disease characterised by a transient febrile response, enlargement of superficial lymph nodes and a significant leukopenia. Flow cytometric analysis of PBMC during the acute (febrile) disease phase showed that the reduced number of lymphocytes was due to a significant decrease in both the proportion and absolute numbers of CD4(+) T cells, but not CD8(+) T-cells or CD21(+) B-cells. At the end of the febrile phase, total numbers of both CD8(+) T-cells and CD21(+) B-cells increased significantly, while CD4(+) T-cell numbers remained below normal values, resulting in a significantly reduced CD4(+):CD8(+) ratio. We speculate that the persistent depletion of CD4(+) T cells following JDV infection, through lack of CD4(+) T cell help to B cells, may explain the lack of production of JDV-specific antibodies for several weeks after recovery despite an increase in CD21(+) B cell numbers. Further, our previous data showing that IgG(+) plasma cells are targets for JDV infection, correlated with our current data demonstrating an increase in CD8(+) T cell numbers, supports the suggestion that anti-viral cytotoxic T cell or other cell-mediated immune responses may be critical in the recovery process, although this remains to be formally demonstrated for JDV.     

我国肉牛生产现状及未来展望

肉牛产业是我国畜牧业和肉类生产的重要组成部分.中国牛肉产量位居世界第三,且随着中国经济的快速发展,牛肉消费随着人均国内生产总值的增加而增加,但中国国内的肉牛产业未能跟上消费增长,使中国成为其他国家牛肉的净进口国.此外,尽管需求不断增长,但产量几乎没有增长.近年来,牛肉生产增速放缓,导致牛肉价格大幅上涨.国内牛肉生产和消...     

肉牛和奶牛家庭牧场发展现状与对策

为保证我国肉牛养殖业和奶牛养殖业的高速发展,经过多种养殖模式的对比,发现以家庭为主体集约化生产、商品化经营的家庭牧场更加适合未来畜牧业的发展趋势,我们认为肉牛和奶牛的家庭牧场式养殖已经成为我国畜牧业未来的发展方向之一。本文对我国肉牛和奶业发达国家的奶牛的家庭牧场发展现状进行了分析,并与畜牧业发达国家的家庭牧场进行对比,总结了我国家庭牧场在发展中存在的问题,并针对这些问题提出了未来我国家庭牧场的发展对策,以期促进我国肉牛和奶牛的家庭牧场持续健康发展。     

Assessing the risk of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 transmission through poultry movements in Bali,Indonesia

Indonesia continues to report the highest number of human and poultry cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1. The disease is considered to be endemic on the island of Bali. Live bird markets are integral in the poultry supply chain on Bali and are important, nutritionally and culturally, for the rural and urban human populations. Due to the lack of biosecurity practiced along the supply chain from producer to live bird markets, there is a need to understand the risks associated with the spread of H5N1 through live bird movements for effective control. Resources to control H5N1 in Indonesia are very limited and cost effective strategies are needed. We assessed the probability a live bird market is infected through live poultry movements and assessed the effects of implementing two simple and low cost control measures on this risk. Results suggest there is a high risk a live bird market is infected (0.78), and risk mitigation strategies such as detecting and removing infected poultry from markets reduce this risk somewhat (range 0.67–0.76). The study demonstrates the key role live poultry movements play in transmitting H5N1 and the need to implement a variety of control measures to reduce disease spread.     

Response of Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) to vaccination with Brucella abortus strain 19 in West Timor

A trial was conducted in two villages (one containing cattle infected with brucellosis and one not containing infected cattle) in Timor, Indonesia to determine the serological response to vaccination with Brucella abortus strain 19 in Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) (n = 599). Mature female cattle were immunised with low-dose strain 19 (2x10(8)-6x10(8) colony forming units) and calves (6-12 months) with high-dose strain 19 (4x10(10)-12x10(10) colony forming units). Other mature females and calves were inoculated with sterile vaccine diluent and formed a non-vaccinated in-contact control group. The seroprevalence and mean titres were highest in the vaccinated cattle 3 months after vaccination. These then receded, however, 1% of vaccinated calves and 1.9% of vaccinated cows from the village without infected cattle were still seropositive on the complement-fixation test (CFT) 24 months after vaccination. Non-vaccinated seropositive animals were more likely to have aborted or had a stillbirth and were less likely to have produced a calf than were seronegative cows from the village containing infected animals. We concluded that strain 19 vaccine induced protection in Bali cattle and that this vaccine might play an important role in the control of bovine brucellosis in Timor.     

奶牛性别控制的研究途径与现状

介绍了应用于奶牛生产中的性别控制技术的途径、方法及现状,为使奶牛性别控制技术在生产实践中广泛应用提供理论指导。     

The relationship between oocyte morphology and ovarian status in cattle

We investigated the relationships between oocyte morphology, follicular size and follicular waves using bovine ovaries derived from local abattoirs. Ovaries at the recruitment and selection phases contained larger numbers of oocytes with good developmental ability, although ovaries at the recruitment phase contained the largest numbers of follicles compared with ovaries at the selection and dominant phases. Dominant phase ovaries contained a high percentage of oocytes with as good developmental ability as selection phase ovaries; however, they contained the lowest total number of oocytes with good developmental ability. Small follicles under 3.0 mm in diameter contained large numbers of small and degenerating oocytes. In contrast, follicles more than 3.0 mm in diameter contained a higher percentage of oocytes with good developmental ability.     

德克塞尔羊在高寒地区生理生化指标的测定和分析

对引入青海省三角城种羊场21只德克塞尔羊的生理、生化指标进行了测定。结果表明:T37.84±0.30℃,R44.73±8.17(次/min),P87.69±9.96(次/min),瘤胃蠕动2.49±0.22(次/min),RBC8.28±1.49(×1012/L),Hb含量106.00±10.29(g/L),WBC12.00±4.17(×109/L),嗜碱性细胞0.70±0.10(%),嗜酸性细胞1.10±1.23(%),嗜中性细胞33.15±1.79(%),单核细胞3.45±2.92(%),淋巴细胞61.60±4.16(%),PCV0.34±0.05(L/L),MCV41.37±3.09(fL),MCH11.97±0.86(pg),MCHC290.67±41.53(g/L); LDH331.67±156.51(U/L),GOT149.33±40.82(U/L),GPT54.00±9.85(U/L),AKP146.67±79.63(U/L),TP53.67±18.01(g/L),GLU3.33±0.73(mmol/L),GHO0.73±0.29(mmol/L),TCA2.31±0.32(mmol/L)。