渭北旱塬苹果黑星病的初侵染来源

 苹果黑星病是世界各苹果产区的重要病害之一,也是我国渭北旱塬苹果产区的新病害。近5年调查研究证明,渭北旱塬苹果落叶上分生孢子数量随时间推移呈急剧下降趋势,在春季苹果芽鳞萌动之前,分生孢子呈无色透明薄片状,均已失去存活力,芽鳞内外检测到分生孢子的数量很少,且均已丧失萌发力。果园中孢子捕捉结果表明,子囊孢子出现在先,分生孢子在后,两者出现时间相差15d以上,且捕捉到分生孢子的日期是在黑星病发病以后。对洛川县、白水县、长武县、永寿县、泾川县和平凉市等地苹果黑星病普查中未发现发病枝条,以菌丝体在枝条上越冬的可能性极小。综合以上试验结果,初步确定子囊孢子是渭北旱塬苹果黑星病的初侵来染,分生孢子不能越冬。     

Relationship between Concentrations of Botrytis Cinerea Conidia in Air, Environmental Conditions, and the Incidence of Grey Mould in Strawberry Flowers and Fruits

Atmospheric concentrations of Botrytis cinerea conidia were monitored for two seasons in a strawberry crop in Moguer (Huelva, southwestern Spain). Concentrations of conidia were estimated using a Burkard volumetric spore sampler. A diurnal pattern of conidial release was observed. Airborne conidial concentration was significantly and positively correlated with the average solar radiation and mean temperature, and negatively with rainfall and relative humidity. Among the weather variables considered, solar radiation showed the most consistent results in the regression analysis, explaining over 40% of airborne conidial concentration variability. Correlation between Botrytis fruit rot incidence and accumulated number of conidia over seven days was significant and positive. Two regression models containing three variables explained over 62 and 52% of the fruit rot incidence variability. A positive but non-significant correlation was established between B. cinerea incidence in flowers and airborne conidial concentration. It was not possible to fit a consistent regression model to relate flower infection incidence to conidial concentration or weather variables.     

Seasonal patterns of dispersal of ascospores of Cryphonectria parasitica (chestnut blight)

Infected barks of chestnut blight cankers, caused by Cryphonectria parasitica , were collected from a naturally infected orchard and incubated at different temperatures. Cankers started to discharge ascospores about a week after incubation at 15–25°C; most ascospores were collected at 20 and 25°C. When incubated at 5, 10 or 30°C, only a few cankers released a small number of ascospores and only during the later stages of incubation. However, the rate of formation of perithecia was not affected by the incubation temperature. The number of airborne ascospores was monitored using a volumetric spore trap in a chestnut orchard during 1996 and 1997. In both years, the number of ascospores trapped daily varied greatly, but in general it increased sharply from March onwards, reached a peak in May, and then declined steeply. There was a significant correlation between daily counts of ascospores and air temperature. Time-series transfer function (TF) analysis showed a positive association of the daily number of ascospores with increasing temperature, rain events and wet/humid conditions. In general, values predicted by the TF model agreed well with the observed pattern. However, a multiple regression equation based on TF analysis failed to provide a satisfactory prediction of the daily number of ascospores.     

Monitoring conidial density of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Monilinia fructigena</Emphasis> in the air in relation to brown rot development in integrated and organic apple orchards

In a three-year Hungarian study, conidial density of Monilinia fructigena in the air determined from mid-May until harvest was related to brown rot disease progress in integrated and organic apple orchards. Conidia of M. fructigena were first trapped in late May in both orchards in all years. Number of conidial density greatly increased after the appearance of first infected fruit, from early July in the organic and from early August in the integrated orchard. Conidial number continuously increased until harvest in both orchards. Final brown rot incidence reached 4.3–6.6% and 19.8–24.5% in the integrated and organic orchards, respectively. Disease incidence showed a significant relationship with corresponding cumulative numbers of trapped conidia both in integrated and organic orchards, and was described by separate three-parameter Gompertz functions for the two orchards. Time series analyses, using autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models, revealed that the temporal patterns of the number of airborne conidia was similar in all years in both integrated and organic orchards. Conidia caught over a 24-h period showed distinct diurnal periodicity, with peak spore density occurring in the afternoon between 13.00 and 18.00. Percent viability of M. fructigena conidia ranged from 48.8 to 70.1% with lower viability in dry compared to wet days in both orchards and all years. Temperature and relative humidity correlated best with mean hourly conidial catches in both integrated and organic apple orchards in each year. Correlations between aerial spore density and wind speed were significant only in the organic orchard over the 3-year period. Mean hourly rainfall was negatively but poorly correlated with mean hourly conidial catches. Results were compared and discussed with previous observations.     

Modeling Infection of Strawberry Flowers by Botrytis cinerea Using Field Data

ABSTRACT The incidence of strawberry flower infection by Botrytis cinerea was monitored in unsprayed field plots in three successive years together with meteorological data and numbers of conidia in the air. There were large differences in conidia numbers and weather conditions in the 3 years. Three sets of models were derived to relate inoculum and weather conditions to the incidence of flower infection; by inoculum only, by weather variables only, and by both inoculum and weather variables. All the models fitted the observed incidence satisfactorily. High inoculum led to more infection. Models using weather variables only gave more accurate predictions than models using inoculum only. Models using both weather variables and inoculum gave the best predictions, but the improvement over the models based on weather variables only was small. The relationship between incidence of flower infection and inoculum and weather variables was generally consistent between years. Of the weather variables examined, daytime vapor pressure deficit and nighttime temperature had the greatest effect in determining daily incidence of flower infection. Infection was favored by low day vapor pressure deficit and high night temperature. The accuracy and consistency of the weather-based models suggest they could be explored to assist in management of gray mold.     

Patterns of release of the secondary conidia of Claviceps africana, the sorghum ergot pathogen in Australia

Trials were conducted in southern Queensland, Australia between March and May 2003, 2004 and 2005 to study patterns of hourly and daily release of the secondary conidia of Claviceps africana and their relationships with weather parameters. Conidia were trapped for at least one hour on most (> 90%) days in 2003 and 2004, but only on 55% of days in 2005. Both the highest daily concentration of conidia, and the highest number of hours per day when conidia were trapped, were recorded 1–3 days after rainfall events. Although the pattern of conidial release was different every day, the highest hourly conidial concentrations occurred between 10·00 hours and 17·00 hours on 73% of all days in the three trials. Hours when conidia were trapped were characterized by higher median values of temperature, windspeed and vapour pressure deficit, lower relative humidity, and leaf wetness values of 0%, than hours when no conidia were recorded. The results indicate that fungicides need to be applied to the highly ergot-susceptible male sterile (A-) lines of sorghum in hybrid seed production blocks and breeders' nurseries as soon as possible after rainfall events to minimize ergot severity.     

宁夏温室瓜菜白粉病菌鉴定及病害流行预测模型构建

为明确宁夏回族自治区温室瓜菜白粉病菌的分类地位,对采自该地区温室的南瓜、黄瓜和甜瓜上的白粉病菌基于ITS序列分析进行分子鉴定;利用孢子捕捉器对温室中甜瓜白粉病菌的孢子量进行监测,分析环境因子、孢子量和病情指数之间的关系,并采用逐步回归分析法构建温室甜瓜白粉病的流行预测模型。结果表明,基于ITS序列的分子鉴定结果,3种瓜菜白粉病的病原菌均为单囊壳白粉菌Podosphaera xanthii。发病期间,每日温室中甜瓜白粉病菌的孢子量在12:00—16:00时段最多,占24 h内总孢子量的34%~81%,20:00—08:00时段最少;白粉病菌孢子的释放与光照强度有关,相关系数为0.602。第t天的病情指数与标准累积温度、标准累积湿度、t-4 d前08:00—12:00时段的累积孢子量、第t-4天16:00—20:00时段的孢子量均具有显著的相关性,相关系数分别为0.935、0.938、0.956和0.921。以标准累积湿度和第t-4天16:00—20:00时段的孢子量为预测变量构建了温室甜瓜白粉病流行预测模型,决定系数为0.962,表明该模型具有较好的实际应用价值。     

Modelling and forecasting epidemics of apple powdery mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha)

A model developed to simulate epidemics of powdery mildew on vegetative shoots of apple generates two types of output. Firstly, it forecasts disease severity (percentage of host tissue infected) by incorporating effects on disease development of the amount of healthy susceptible tissue and current infectious (sporulating) disease, the level of initial inoculum (overwintered 'primary' mildew) and weather conditions. The effects of weather variables are considered on only two aspects of the fungal life cycle: initial spore germination and the subsequent development during the incubation period. Secondly, the model generates indices of the relative favourability of weather conditions on disease development by incorporating effects of weather on conidial production/dispersal and germination. On each day, forecasts of the (relative) severity of new infection and total current infectious disease are given for both types of output. The model was evaluated by comparing its predictions with the mildew epidemics observed in two unsprayed orchards over four years. In all the years, the temporal patterns of the predicted and the observed disease were generally similar. The pattern of the disease severity forecasts was marginally closer to the observed than that derived from two weather indices. Potential roles of the model in practical management of apple powdery mildew are discussed.     

生长季马铃薯植株冠层空气中Alternaria solani分生孢子飞散动态及其影响因素

 对生长季马铃薯冠层空气中Aternaria solani (Ell. & G. Martin ) 分生孢子的数量和马铃薯早疫病发生程度进行了系统调查,并对空气中分生孢子数量与早疫病发生程度之间的相关性以及影响空气中分生孢子数量的因素进行了分析。结果表明:在马铃薯出苗至收获(6~8月份)期间,当病情指数低于4时两者之间呈显著线性相关关系,随着病情指数的增高二者的线性相关性降低。天气条件对空气中A. solani 分生孢子数量的影响明显,通常降雨2 d后空气中孢子的数量会有一个高峰,日平均气温(地上2 m)低于18℃的条件下,空气中孢子数量会显著减少。一天中6∶00 am至16∶00 pm空气中A. solani分生孢子数量较多,17∶00 pm至次日5∶00 am孢子数量较少,分别占全天总量的 60.95%和 39.05%,各小时孢子飞散量占全天比例与空气相对湿度呈显著负相关,而与空气温度呈显著正相关。     

Secondary inoculum dynamics of Monilinia spp. and relationship to the incidence of postharvest brown rot in peaches and the weather conditions during the growing season

Eight field surveys over three growing seasons (April to October in 2006, 2007, and 2008) were done in three commercial peach and nectarine orchards in order to determine the secondary inoculum dynamics of Monilinia spp. and relationship to the weather conditions and incidence of postharvest brown rot in the Ebro Valley, which is the main peach fruit growing region in Spain. After regression analysis of the epidemiological data of postharvest brown rot and the climatic variables, a disease outbreak can be predicted from (i) the times of the first appearance of airborne conidia, the first appearance of conidia on the surface of flowers and fruits, and the first latent infection, all of which occur 2?months before harvest (ii) the number of conidia on the fruit surface, 2?weeks and 1?week before harvest, (iii) the preharvest incidence of brown rot, and (iv) the mean environmental temperature from popcorn to harvest. From these results, we confirmed the importance of the secondary inoculum dynamics of Monilinia spp. and the utility of these dynamics to predict an outbreak of brown rot in peaches on the day of their harvest and after their harvesting.     

Spatiotemporal relationships between disease development and airborne inoculum in unmanaged and managed Botrytis leaf blight epidemics

Comparatively little quantitative information is available on both the spatial and temporal relationships that develop between airborne inoculum and disease intensity during the course of aerially spread epidemics. Botrytis leaf blight and Botrytis squamosa airborne inoculum were analyzed over space and time during 2 years (2002 and 2004) in a nonprotected experimental field, using a 6 x 8 lattice of quadrats of 10 x 10 m each. A similar experiment was conducted in 2004 and 2006 in a commercial field managed for Botrytis leaf blight using a 5 x 5 lattice of quadrats of 25 x 25 m each. Each quadrat was monitored weekly for lesion density (LD) and aerial conidium concentration (ACC). The adjustment of the Taylor's power law showed that heterogeneity in both LD and ACC generally increased with increasing mean. Unmanaged epidemics were characterized in either year, with aggregation indices derived from SADIE (Spatial Analysis by Distance Indices). For LD, the aggregation indices suggested a random pattern of disease early in the season, followed by an aggregated pattern in the second part of the epidemic. The index of aggregation for ACC in 2002 was significantly greater than 1 at only one date, while it was significantly greater than 1 at most sampling dates in 2004. In both years and for both variables, positive trends in partial autocorrelation were observed mainly for a spatial lag of 1. In 2002, the overall pattern of partial autocorrelations over sampling dates was similar for LD and ACC with no significant partial autocorrelation during the first part of the epidemic, followed by a period with significant positive autocorrelation, and again no autocorrelation on the last three sampling dates. In 2004, there was no significant positive autocorrelation for LD at most sampling dates while for ACC, there was a fluctuation between significant and non-significant positive correlation over sampling dates. There was a significant spatial correlation between ACC at given date (t(i)) and LD 1 week later (t(i + 1)) on most sampling dates in both 2002 and 2004 for the unmanaged and managed sites. It was concluded that LD and ACC were not aggregated in the early stage of epidemics, when both disease intensity and airborne conidia concentration were low. This was supported by the analysis of LD and ACC from a commercial field, where managed levels of disease were low, and where no aggregation of both variables was detected. It was further concluded that a reliable monitoring of airborne inoculum for management of Botrytis leaf blight is achievable in managed fields using few spore samplers per field.     

Real-time PCR quantification and spatio-temporal distribution of airborne inoculum of Mycosphaerella graminicola in Belgium

Two kinds of propagules play a role in Mycosphaerella graminicola dissemination: splash-dispersed pycnidiospores and airborne sexual ascospores. A method based on real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and using Burkard spore traps was developed to quantify M. graminicola airborne inoculum. The method was tested for its reliability and applied in a spore trap network over a 2-year period in order to investigate the spatio-temporal distribution of airborne inoculum in Belgium. At four experimental sites, airborne inoculum was detected in both years. A seasonal distribution was observed, with the highest mean daily quantities (up to 351.0 cDNA) trapped in July and with clusters detected from September to April. The first year of trapping, a mean daily quantity of 15.7 cDNA of M. graminicola airborne inoculum was also detected in the air above a building in a city where the spatio-temporal distribution showed a similar pattern to that in the field. Mean daily quantities of up to 60.7 cDNA of airborne inoculum were measured during the cereal stem elongation and flowering stages, suggesting that it contributes to the infection of upper leaves later in the season. Most detection, however, tended to occur between flowering and harvest, suggesting significant production of pseudothecia during that period. Variations in mean daily quantities from 1.0 to 48.2 cDNA were observed between sites and between years in the patterns of airborne inoculum. After stem elongation, the quantities detected at a site were positively correlated with the disease pressure in the field. Quantities trapped at beginning of the growing season were also well correlated with the disease level the previous year. Multiple regressions revealed that some factors partly explain the daily variations of airborne inoculum.     

The widespread occurrence of overwintered conidial inoculum of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Venturia inaequalis</Emphasis> on shoots and buds in organic and integrated apple orchards across the Netherlands

A 2-year study was conducted to determine the widespread occurrence of overwintered conidial inoculum of Venturia inaequalis and its impact on the apple scab control in 18 apple orchards (organic and integrated) with various levels of scab in the Netherlands. Autumn assessments of scab lesions showed that the integrated orchards had a significantly lower scab incidence (<20%) compared to that of the organic orchards (>60%). At the bud-break phenological stage, the mean numbers of nonviable and viable conidia on 1 cm pieces of shoots ranged from 1 to about 90 and from 6 to more than 1000 in the integrated and the organic orchards, respectively, for both years. However, viable conidia on shoots were found only in 2 integrated and 6 organic orchards out of the 18 and the viability of conidia was below 2%. The mean numbers of viable and nonviable conidia per 100 buds ranged from 24 to more than 1000 and from 230 to almost 5000 in the integrated and the organic orchards, respectively, for both years. In both years, some 60–85% of the conidia was found on the outer bud scales. The percentage viability associated with the outer bud tissues was below 2% for all the orchards. However, the percentage of viable conidia within the inner bud tissues ranged from 0% to 6% in the integrated and from 2% to 11% in the organic orchards for both years. Differences between the organic and the integrated orchards were clearly demonstrated for overwintered conidia associated with both shoot and bud samples. The relationship between autumn scab incidence and numbers of overwintered conidia associated with shoots or buds was exponential. If the autumn scab incidence was above 40%, then the number of overwintered conidia markedly increased. We conclude that specific treatments for overwintering conidia of Venturia inaequalis may not be necessary in integrated orchards with a low scab incidence in the previous autumn. However, the risk of early scab epidemics initiated by overwintered conidia potentially is high in organic orchards. Preventative measures in early spring and also in the previous year must be established in these orchards.     

Influence of environmental factors on field concentrations of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alternaria solani</Emphasis> conidia above a South African potato crop

Trends in weather variables and concentrations of airborne conidia ofAlternaria solani were monitored in a potato field in South Africa during three potato-growing seasons in 2001 and 2002. Distinct seasonal variation was noted, with a drop in spore numbers during winter. Peaks in spore concentration coincided with periods favorable for spore formation and dispersal; most notable was the effect of interrupted wetting periods. Diurnal periodicity of spore dispersal was also observed, with the peak of spore concentrations between 9h00 and 18h00. Few spores were sampled at night, when wind velocity and temperature are lowest and relative humidity is highest. Increased numbers of spores were sampled during days of harvesting or when other ground-operated farm equipment was used. The results obtained in this study will be useful in establishing decision support systems to control early blight on potatoes in southern Africa. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting July 10, 2003.     

A hypothesis on physiological alterations during plant ontogenesis governing susceptibility of winter barley to ramularia leaf spot

The occurrence and epidemic spread of ramularia leaf spot (RLS) caused by Ramularia collo-cygni was studied with relation to the plant age-dependent alterations in the antioxidative defence systems in the leaves during mature stages of field-grown winter barley. The breakdown of enzymatic activities of dehydroascorbate reductase, monodehydroascorbate reductase and glutathione reductase in the two uppermost fully expanded leaf layers correlated well with a decrease in the pool of the non-enzymatic antioxidants ascorbate and glutathione. The general decline in the antioxidative systems occurred between 31 May and 8 June after ear emergence stages and preceded the first visible symptoms of RLS. The activities of peroxidases corresponded to an increase in phenolics and lignification which seemed to enhance the infectivity of the fungus rather than to protect the plant. The first R. collo-cygni conidia were trapped in the field about 4 weeks before the latent infection was first detected by ELISA, and 5 weeks before the first disease symptoms became visible. Both the counts of airborne conidia and the weather data recorded between April and June suggest that neither inoculum nor the weather conditions are limiting factors for infection by R. collo-cygni at earlier growth stages of barley. It is concluded that the relatively late development of RLS in the field in mid June is governed by the significant degradation of the antioxidative protection systems in the leaves of barley at the onset of ripening stages, rather than by environmental factors or the availability of airborne inoculum.     

Components of quantitative resistance to powdery mildew (Erysiphe pisi) in pea (Pisum sativum)

Components of quantitative resistance in pea ( Pisum sativum ) to Erysiphe pisi , the pathogen causing powdery mildew, were investigated. Conidium germination, infection efficiency, latent period and conidium production dynamics on cv. Quantum (quantitatively resistant) were compared with those on Pania and Bolero (susceptible). There was an additional comparison in conidium germination experiments with the resistant cv. Resal. Quantitative resistance in Quantum did not affect conidium germination, but infection efficiency of conidia on this cultivar was 34% less than on the susceptible Pania. More conidia germinated on 5-day-old leaflets than on 15-day-old leaflets but the age of the plant did not affect percentage germination or infection efficiency. The length of the latent period did not differ between cultivars. Total conidium production (AUC) per unit leaflet area on Quantum was 25% less than on Pania. The maximum conidium production per day (CMAX) per unit leaflet area on Quantum was 33% less than on Pania. The time to maximum conidium production per day (TMAX) was 10% longer on Quantum than on Pania. The cv. Bolero, reported to be susceptible, also showed some degree of quantitative resistance, but this differed from that of Quantum. Total conidium production was less on Bolero than on Quantum, but the conidia on Bolero were produced sooner, and for a shorter period, than on Quantum. The stability of these responses was tested by analysing components in three different temperature regimes and testing for interactions with temperature, and with leaflet age. Temperature affected all conidium production variables. AUC per leaflet area was nearly seven times as great and CMAX nearly 15 times greater at 23°C than at 13°C. TMAX increased by 1.5 times when temperature increased from 13°C to 18°C or 23°C. Several interactions occurred and these are described.     

北京地区日光温室草莓灰霉病发生 动态监测和影响因素分析

 草莓灰霉病是由灰葡萄孢(Botrytis cinerea Pers.)引起的一种真菌病害,可造成草莓烂果,严重影响草莓产量和采后保存。为了探明日光温室草莓灰霉病的发生流行规律,在2013—2014年生长季和2014—2015年生长季,对北京地区草莓日光温室空气中灰葡萄孢分生孢子数量、草莓花瓣带菌率和灰霉病病果数进行了动态监测和调查,同时对日光温室中气象因子进行了系统监测和记录。结果表明,在草莓日光温室中,利用孢子捕捉器捕获的灰葡萄孢分生孢子数量在一天中主要集中在5:00-18:00,以11:00-14:00数量最大。在一天中每小时捕获的分生孢子数量与温度和光照强度呈极显著正相关(P≤0.01),与相对湿度呈极显著负相关(P≤0.01)。新增草莓灰霉病病果数与7 d前当天捕获的分生孢子数量呈极显著正相关(r=0.872,P≤0.01),与7 d前当天的新鲜花瓣带菌率亦呈极显著正相关(r=0.807,P≤0.01),这为利用捕获的分生孢子数量和新鲜花瓣的带菌率预测7 d后草莓灰霉病的发生情况提供了重要参考。本研究结果有助于了解日光温室中草莓灰霉病的发生规律和影响因素,为该病害的防控和预测测报提供了依据。     

A Distributed Lag Analysis of the Relationship Between Gibberella zeae Inoculum Density on Wheat Spikes and Weather Variables

ABSTRACT In an effort to characterize the association between weather variables and inoculum of Gibberella zeae in wheat canopies, spikes were sampled and assayed for pathogen propagules from plots established in Indiana, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, and Manitoba between 1999 and 2005. Inoculum abundance was quantified as the daily number of colony forming units per spike (CFU/spike). A total of 49 individual weather variables for 24-h periods were generated from measurements of ambient weather data. Polynomial distributed lag regression analysis, followed by linear mixed model analysis, was used to (i) identify weather variables significantly related to log-transformed CFU/spike (the response variable; Y), (ii) determine the time window (i.e., lag length) over which each weather variable affected Y, (iii) determine the form of the relationship between each weather variable and Y (defined in terms of the polynomial degree for the relationship between the parameter weights for the weather variables and the time lag involved), and (iv) account for location-specific effects and random effects of years within locations on the response variable. Both location and year within location affected the magnitude of Y, but there was no consistent trend in Y over time. Y on each day was significantly and simultaneously related to weather variables on the day of sampling and on the 8 days prior to sampling (giving a 9-day time window). The structural relationship corresponded to polynomial degrees of 0, 1, or 2, generally showing a smooth change in the parameter weights and time lag. Moisture- (e.g., relative humidity-) related variables had the strongest relationship with Y, but air temperature- and rainfall-related variables also significantly affected Y. The overall marginal effect of each weather variable on Y was positive. Thus, local weather conditions can be utilized to improve estimates of spore density on wheat spikes around the time of flowering.     

Role of ascospores and conidia in the initiation and spread of South American leaf blight in a rubber tree plantation

Microcyclus ulei, the fungus causing South American leaf blight (SALB) on rubber tree leaves, produces two main types of spores: ascospores and conidia. To assess their respective epidemiological role, a field experiment was conducted in French Guiana over 3 years. Tree phenology, disease severity and climate variables were recorded while airborne spores were trapped and quantified. Ascospores were shown to play an essential role in the perpetuation of the disease outside the host's growth periods, in the resumption of epidemics, and in the spread of the disease to disease‐free zones. Conidia were trapped in visibly infected plots only, during periods of host growth. Disseminated over short distances and present only temporarily on leaves, the conidia enabled the disease to spread stepwise when the climate was conducive. Segmentation analysis revealed that the duration of high relative humidity was the climatic variable most related to ascospore trapping. Ascospore release did not require low temperatures. Considering the essential role of the ascospores in the initiation and spread of disease, artificial defoliation as a means of reducing the inoculum pressure during tree refoliation is proposed to control SALB. To check the validity of this method, a survey over several years of natural defoliation–refoliation in relation to climate and other leaf diseases is needed.     

Relating disease progress to cumulative numbers of trapped spores: apple powdery mildew and scab epidemics in sprayed and unsprayed orchard plots

A technique for relating the progress of plant diseases caused by airborne fungal pathogens to cumulative numbers of trapped spores is proposed. The relationship involves two epidemiological parameters—a disease asymptote and the infection efficiency (disease units/spore) of inoculum. The technique was evaluated using data on apple powdery mildew and scab epidemics in sprayed and unsprayed apple orchard plots. For powdery mildew, the observed relationships were close to those proposed in the unsprayed plot, but changed after or during the period of fungicide application in sprayed plots. Parameter estimates gave useful comparative information on the epidemics. The technique was not useful for scab because of the discontinuous patterns of infection.