Effects of Drip System Uniformity and Irrigation Amount on Water and Salt Distributions in Soil Under Arid Conditions

The dynamics of water and salt in soil were monitored in the 2010 and 2011 growing seasons of cotton to evaluate the salinity risk of soil under drip irrigation in arid environments for different management practices of drip system uniformity and irrigation amount.In the experiments,three Christiansen uniformity coefficients(CU) of approximately 65,80,and 95%(referred to as low,medium,and high uniformity,respectively) and three irrigation amounts of 50,75,and 100% of full irrigation were used.The distribution of the soil water content and bulk electrical conductivity(EC b) was monitored continuously with approximately equally spaced frequency domain reflectometry(FDR) sensors located along a dripline.Gravimetric samples of soil were collected regularly to determine the distribution of soil salinity.A great fluctuation in CU of water content and EC b at 60 cm depth was observed for the low uniformity treatment during the irrigation season,while a relatively stable variation pattern was observed for the high uniformity treatment.The EC b CU was substantially lower than the water content CU and its value was greatly related to the water content CU and the initial EC b CU.The spatial variation of seasonal mean soil water content and seasonal mean soil bulk electrical conductivity showed a high dependence on the variation pattern of emitter discharge rate along a dripline for the low and medium uniformity treatments.A greater irrigation amount produced a significantly lower soil salinity at the end of the irrigation season,while the influence of the system uniformity on the soil salinity was insignificant at a probability level of 0.1.In arid regions,the determination of the target drip irrigation system uniformity should consider the potential salinity risk of soil caused by nonuniform water application as the influence of the system uniformity on the distribution of the soil salinity was progressively strengthened during the growing season of crop.     

Status and Perspectives of the Researches on Lawn

There is a rapid development of lawn industry, however, the researches on lawn culture, maintenance and its mechanis mslag behind. Studies of drought-resistance, fertilization, management and maintenance of lawn are discussed in this paper.Besides, problems with the research on lawn culture and its maintenance in China are also analyzed. For example, soil has been destroyed seriously by the production of wrapping sward, but the studies on turf medium are deficient. Besides, the maintenance and management of lawn have not a standard due to the shortage of studies on turf quality assessment;applications of high-technique to lawn sciences are inadequate too. The developing tendency of lawn research in China is suggested at the end of this paper to help for the further studies in this field.     

Studies on the Correlations Between Isoflavone Contents in SoybeanSeed and the Eco-Physiological Factors

The soybean cultivar Yudou25 was sown at 5 locations of Henan Province on 13 different dates in 2001 and 2002. The data of isoflavone contents for the 109 samples of soybean seed and 33 eco-physiological factors including meteorological factors, soil nutrition and altitudes were received and used for statistical analysis. The step-wise regression was used to screen the correlated factors, which significantly effected isoflavone contents. Results showed that 9 eco-physiological factors were highly correlated with isoflavones. Low mean temperature, high diurnal temperature range at seed filling and maturity, more sunlight hours and low mean temperature at emergence were favorable to isoflavone accumulation. The rainfall at emergence showed a nonlinear relationship with isoflavone content and its optimum value was 75 mm for isoflavone formation. Low diurnal temperature range at branching, high organic matter and low sulfur content in soil were suitable for the formation of isoflavones. The isoflavone contents would not be affected by other eco-physiological factors in this study.     

Effects of Soil Water Content on Cotton Root Growth and Distribution Under Mulched Drip Irrigation

The relation between soil water content and the growth of cotton root was studied for the scheme of field water and cotton yield under mulched drip irrigation. Based on the field experiments, three treatments of soil water content were conducted with 90%, 75%θf, and 60%θf （θfis field water capacity）. Cotton roots and root-shoot ratio were studied with digging method, and the soil moisture was observed with TDR （time domain reflector）, and cotton yield was measured. The results indicated that the growth of cotton root accorded with Logistic growth curve in the three treatments, the cotton root grew quickly and its weight was very high under 75%θf because of the suitable soil water condition, while grew slowly and its weight was lower under 90%θf due to water moisture beyond the suitable condition, and the root weight was in between under 60%θf For the three water treatments, the cotton root weight decreased with soil depth, and decreased more significantly in deeper soil layer with the soil moisture increasing. And the ratio of cotton root weight in 0-30 cm soil layer to the total root weight was the highest under 75%θf. The cotton root system was distributed mainly in the soil of narrow row and wide row mulched with plastic film, and little in the soil outside plastic film. The weight of cotton root was the highest in the soil of narrow row or wide row mulched with plastic film under 75%θf. Root-shoot ratio decreased with the soil moisture increasing. The soil water content affected cotton yields, and cotton yield was the highest under 75%θf. The higher soil moisture level is unfavorable to the growth of cotton root system and yield of cotton under mulched drip irrigation.     

Assessment for soil loss by using a scheme of alterative sub-models based on the RUSLE in a Karst Basin of Southwest China

Accurate assessment of soil loss caused by rainfall is essential for natural and agricultural resources management. Soil erosion directly affects the environment and human sustainability. In this work,the empirical and contemporary model of revised universal soil loss equation(RUSLE) was applied for simulating the soil erosion rate in a karst catchment using remote sensing data and geographical information systems. A scheme of alterative sub-models was adopted to calculate the rainfall erosivity(R),soil erodibility(K),slope length and steepness(LS),cover management(C) and conservation practice(P) factors in the geographic information system(GIS) environment. A map showing the potential of soil erosion rate was produced by the RUSLE and it indicated the severe soil erosion in the study area. Six classes of erosion rate are distinguished from the map: 1) minimal,2) low,3) medium,4) high,5) very high,and 6) extremely high. The RUSLE gave a mean annual erosion rate of 30.24 Mg ha–1 yr–1 from the 1980 s to 2000 s. The mean annual erosion rate obtained using RUSLE is consistent with the result of previous research based on in situ measurement from 1980 to 2009. The high performance of the RUSLE model indicates the reliability of the sub-models and possibility of applying the RUSLE on quantitative estimation. The result of the RUSLE model is sensitive to the slope steepness,slope length,vegetation factors and digital elevation model(DEM) resolution. The study suggests that attention should be given to the topographic factors and DEM resolution when applying the RUSLE on quantitative estimation of soil loss.     

Potassium Supplying Power of Soils in Heilongjiang Province and the Effect of Potassium Application on Resistance of Crops to Adverse Conditions

The total potassium(K)content of soils in Heilongjiang was relatively high in general and the available potassium content on soils was quite different for different soil types.The results of electro-ultra-filtration(EUF)analysis showed that the dark brown forest soils and the black soils in the northern part contained relatively high EUF-K,ranged from 12.5 to 15.7 mg per 100g soil.In the black soils in the southern part,the EUF-K ranged from 8 to 9mg per 100g soil.The albic and aeolian sandy soils contained low EUF-K,ranged from 3.2 to 4.8mg per 100g soil.Field experiment in 1982 indicated that potassium fertilizer in soils with medium or low EUF-K,increased soybean yield by 17%-34%,and obviously prevented the epidemic of meadow moth and soybean mosaic virus.Application of potassium fertilizer increased the protein and total sugar content of the plants,promoted transportation of nutrients,speeded up the growth of the plants,improved the resistance of crops to adverse conditions.Application of potassium fertilizer resulted in early maturity of crops(4-7 days earlier than cotrol),which had great significance for preventing crops from early frost damage.Hence,in order to keep nutrients balance in the soil and to increase soil fertility.potassium fertilizer or materials containing potassium must be applied to soils with medium and low EUF-K,such as black soils in the south part,ablic soils and aeolian sandy soils in Heilongjiang Province.     

Integrated application of February Orchid(Orychophragmus violaceus) as green manure with chemical fertilizer for improving grain yield and reducing nitrogen losses in spring maize system in northern China

The development of more efficient management systems is crucial to achieving high grain yields with high nitrogen use efficiency(NUE). February Orchid-spring maize rotation system is a newly established planting system with the benefits of ground cover and potential wind erosion in northern China. A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of integrated application of February Orchid as green manure with reduction of chemical fertilizers(INTEGRATED) on spring maize yield, N uptake, ammonium volatilization, and soil residual mineral N in northern China. Compared to farmers' traditional fertilization(CON), integrated application of February Orchid as green manure with 30% reduction of nitrogen fertilizers(INTEGRATED) increased maize grain yield and biomass by 9.9 and 10.2%, respectively. The 0–100 cm soil residual Nmin at harvest was decreased by 58.5% and thus nitrogen use efficiency was increased significantly by 26.7%. The nitrogen balance calculation further demonstrated that the INTEGRATED approach performed better than CON with lower apparent nitrogen loss(decreased by 48.9%) which evidenced by the ammonium volatilization of top-dressing fertilizer was decreased by 31.1%, the N_(min) movement to the deeper soil layers was reduced, and the apparent nitrogen leaching loss nearly equal to 0 under the INTEGRATED treatment. Therefore, in northern China, integrated application of green manure and chemical fertilizers is an efficient management approach for improving maize yields and NUE simultaneously.     

Use of Trichoderma spp. on soil microbiology improvement for organic agriculture in Costa Rica

The soil is a complex system where processes have direct influence on crop nutrition and plant health. Unfortunately, most of the agricultural soil management practices, compact them producing poor oxygenation, low benefic microorganism populations and metabolic disorders in plants. Those factors induce abnormal plant development and predisposition to the attack of soil borne plant pathogens as: Sclerotium cepivorum, Sclerotium rolfsi, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Rhizoctonia solani, Rosellin…     

Effect of RRS on nitrogen transition and related bacteria in rhizosphere soil

The biology safety of genetically modified organisms(GMO)has been a topic of considerable public debate in recent years.Parts of the international research on the safety of GMO focus on its effect on soil ecosystem,especially on microbial communities changing and process in soil that are essential to key terrestrial ecosystem functions.This paper studied the dynamic change of soil microbe after cultivating Roundup Ready soybean(RRS)and the effect on biochemical processing of nitrogen cycle. According to the variance analysis,the ammonifying bacteria and nitrifying bacteria quantities of RRS in the rhizosphere soil were much lower than that of other genotype soybeans.The effects of different genotype soybeans on ammoniation intensity and nitrification intensity were remarkable.The nitrification intensity and the nitrifying bacteria had the great positive correlation and sustainable development.     

Regional Variability of the Effects of Land Use Systems on Soil Properties

In order to explore the regional variability of the effects of land use systems on soil properties, Shouyang County in Shanxi Province and Danling County in Sichuan Province of China were selected as the study areas. Field soil samples of the four land use systems （natural forest, forest plantation, shrubland, and cropland） were collected, respectively, from the two areas. The general statistical tools were used to analyze soil data. The results showed that the influence of land use systems on soil properties was significant. In general, soils in slightly human-disturbed land use systems presented a higher fertility level than those in strongly human-disturbed land use systems in both areas. Furthermore, the impacts of the same land use systems on soil properties showed a distinct regional variability, and even in the same land use system, different farming systems and site management measures （such as irrigation, fertilization, and pesticides） could also lead to the regional heterogeneity in soil properties. The regional variability of land use effects on soil properties reveals the regional variability of the effects of human activities on environmental changes, and could explain the complex relationship between humans and the natural environment in certain ways.     

Nutrient Budget and Soil Nutrient Status in Greenhouse System

This paper is based on nutrient budget and its effects on soil nutrient status in typical greenhouse system in China to provide a basis for raising the utilization rate of fertilizers and maintaining the sustainable development of agriculture in the greenhouse.By investigating the management of 18 representative greenhouses in Shouguang,Shandong Province,China,and analyzing both the greenhouse and open field soil samples,the soil nutrient budget and the trend of nutrient accumulation and translocation in soils were thus studied.The results under greenhouse system showed that the average annual inputs of N,P2O5 and K2O were 4 088,3 655 and 3 437 kg ha-1,respectively.The total inputs of N,P2O5 and K2O provided by chemical fertilizers which are the main source of soil nutrient were 63,61 and 66%,respectively.The utilization rates of N,P2O5 and K2O were only 24,8,46% and the input ratio among N,P2O5 and K2O （1：0.9：0.8） was quite different from the uptake ratio （1：0.3：1.4）.It had caused the excess of N,P2O5 and K2O in the soil,and the theoretical surpluses were 3 214,3 401 and 2 322 kg ha-1,respectively,for N,P2O5 and K2O.The level of the organic matter,total nitrogen,nitrate nitrogen,available phosphorus,and available potassium was increased substantially,and their maximum level was observed in the topsoil （0-20 cm） with an average value being 1.4,1.9,21.2,5.4,and 3.7 times higher than that of the open field soil,respectively.The greenhouse soils showed leaching of the nutrients,especially NO3- which would cause a potential risk to the quality of groundwater in the area.It is necessary to apply more organic manure and provide nutrients according to the crop requirements and soil fertility as it could not only produce high crop yield,but also be beneficial to balance the soil nutrient and improve the utilization rate of fertilizers.Further,there would be no significant surplus of nutrients which may leach out of soil to contaminate the environment.     

Effects of Air-Drying on the Inorganic Phosphorus Forms in Soils

After 90 day‘s cultivation of five different plants (rye grass, lupin, buckwheat, rape and amaranth) in three soils (Yellow brown soil, Paddy soil and Red soil), fresh soil samples were collected and inorganic phosphorus (Pi) fractions were measured before and after air-drying. The results clearly indicated that the total Pi and their composition differed significantly among soil types. The air-drying process increased the total Pi in yellow brown soil and in paddy soil, while decreased that in red soil. The total Pi could vary to 70% of that before air-drying. The Pi forms in different soils changed to different extent after air-drying. As to yellow brown soil, A1-P decreased, while O-P and Ca-P increased; as to paddy soil, A1-P and Ca-P increased, while Fe-P and O-P remained; as to red soil, A1-P and Fe-P increased, Ca-P remained and O-P reduced obviously. Growth of different plants in soils had effects on Pi forms during the process of air-drying. Therefore, for chemical study of soil phosphorus, application of fresh soil samples can provide more reliable results.     

Effects of Cropping System Change for Paddy Field with Double Harvest Rice on the Crops Growth and Soil Nutrient

The effects of the cropping system change for paddy field with double harvest rice on crops growth and soil nutrient in red soil were studied. The results indicated that the economic benefit and the ratio of the output to input were all increased in terms of the market price for the crops under various treatments. The greatest economic benefit was obtained in the treatment of paddy-upland rotation, and the corresponding economic benefit was increased by 34.7, 21.4, and 2.2% in comparison with that of control （rice-rice-astragali）, pasture, and upland cropping treatments. The economic benefits in pasture and upland cultivation treatments were increased by I 1.0 and 31.8%, respectively, when compared with that of the control treatment （CK）. The ratio of output to input in pasture, paddy-upland rotation, and upland cropping treatments was enhanced by 0.9, 0.6, and 0.3, respectively, in comparison with that of control. To grow pasture is beneficial for improving soil fertility since the contents of soil organic matter, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and available phosphorus are all enhanced significantly. However, the concentrations of the soil available nitrogen, the total potassium, the available potassium were somewhat reduced in all the treatments, suggesting that increasing the input of nitrogen, particularly potassium, was necessary under the present fertilization level. Based on the conditions of fertility, climate, cultivation, and management of paddy field with double harvest rice in red soil regions, it is feasible to alter the cultivation system of paddy field with bad irrigation condition. In particular, cultivation systems such as pasture and paddy-upland rotation can be selected to extend because better economic benefit and improvement of soil fertility in the purpose region were obtained.     

Effect of Soil Texture on Starch Accumulation and Activities of Key Enzymes of Starch Synthesis in the Kernel of ZM 9023

Three kinds of soil texture （clay-loam, mid-loam, and sand-loam soil） were used to study the effects of soil texture on starch accumulating rate and the changes in activities of the key enzymes of starch synthesis in the kernel during grain filling in high gluten content wheat ZM 9023, under conditions of pond culture. The content of starch and its components were measured according to the method of double-wave length described by Bao （1996）. ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase （AGPP） activity was tested according to the method described by Doehlert et al. （1988）. Soluble starch synthase （SSS） and starch branching enzyme （SBE） activities were tested according to the method described by Nakamura et al. （1989）. The amylose, amylopectin, and total starch accumulating rate in the kernel of ZM 9023 were found to be a single-peak curve in three different soil textures during grain filling, and peaked 20, 15, and 15 d after anthesis, respectively. The activities of the enzymes, AGPP, SSS, and SBE, in the kernel of ZM 9023 had a single-peaked curve, which peaked 20, 15, and 15 d after anthesis, respectively. The activities of the above three enzymes of ZM 9023 were higher in the sand-loam soil. The accumulating peak of amylose formed later compared to that of amylopectin. The sand-loam soil could help high gluten content cultivars to synthesize starch.     

Studies on the Mechanism of Single Basal Application of Controlled-Release Fertilizers for Increasing Yield of Rice （Oryza sativa L.）

This paper was to explore the mechanism of single basal application of controlled-release fertilizers for increasing yield of rice （Oryza sativa L.）. Pot trials and cylinder trials were carried out from 2002 to 2005 to study the influences of single basal application of 3 controlled-release fertilizers on the changes of soil available N, root development, senescence and lodging resistance at late growth stages. Results showed that at 30 days after fertilization, single basal application of controlled-release fertilizers coated with vegetal-substance （CRF1） and polymer materials （CRF3） increased soil available N to 12.0 and 147.9%, respectively, in comparison to split fertilization of rice-specific fertilizer （RSF1）. Treatments of the two CRFs obviously benefited the development of root system, resulting in greater rice root weights with extensive distribution and higher root activity. In addition, the two CRF treatments, in comparison to RSF1, enhanced chlorophyll consents of the flag leaves to 9.5 and 15.5%, and soluble protein up to 89.7 and 108.0% respectively. Application of the two CRFs also made the base of rice stems strong and large, declined the proportion of shoot and root, increased root depth index. Though relatively low K rate, single basal application of the CRF3 coated with NH4MgPO4 could also promote the development of root system, enhance root activity and some physiological functions of flag leaves. Based on these results, it was concluded that major mechanisms for increasing rice yield by single basal application of the CRFs should be attributed to grater soil available N supply, superior development of root systems, better nutrient absorption capacity, slower senescence and enhancement of lodging resistance at late stages.     

Response of carbon footprint to plastic film mulch application in spring maize production and mitigation strategy

Producing more food with a lower environmental cost is one of the most crucial challenges worldwide. Plastic mulching has developed as one of the most dominant practices to improve crop yields, however its impacts on greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions during the production life cycle of a crop are still unclear. The objective of this work is to quantify the impacts of plastic film on GHG emissions and to reduce GHG emissions with innovative agronomic practices. Carbon footprint per unit of area(CFa), per unit of maize grain yield(CFy), and per unit of economic output(CFe) were evaluated for three maize cultivation systems: a no mulch system, a conventional plastic mulching system(PM) and a biennial plastic mulching pattern, namely a 'one film for 2 years' system(PM2), during 2015–2018 in a maize field located on the Loess Plateau of China. The results suggested that PM induced a 24% improvement in maize yields during the four experimental years compared to a no-mulch treatment(NM). However, PM dramatically increased the CFa by 69%, 59% of which was created by the input of the plastic film material, and 10% was created by increases in the soil N_2O emissions. The yield improvements from PM could not offset the increases in CFa, and CFy and CFe were both increased by 36%. Shifting from PM to PM2 did not reduce crop yields, but it led to a 21% reduction in CFa and 23% reductions in CFy and CFe due to the reduced input amount of plastic film, decreased soil N_2O emissions, and less diesel oil used for tillage. Compared to NM, CFy and CFe were only 5% higher in PM2. This study highlights the necessity of reducing the amount of plastic film input in the development of low-carbon agriculture and shifting from conventional PM cultivation to PM2 could be an efficient option for mitigating GHG emissions while sustaining high crop yields in plastic mulched fields.     

Effect of Long-Term Application of K Fertilizer and Wheat Straw to Soil on Crop Yield and Soil K Under Different Planting Systems

Effect of application of K fertilizer and wheat straw to soil on crop yield and status of soil K in the plough layer under different planting systems was studied. The experiments on long-term application of K fertilizer and wheat straw to soil in Hebei fluvo aquic soil and Shanxi brown soil in northern China were begun in 1992. The results showed that K fertilizer and straw could improve the yields of wheat and maize with the order of NPK ＋ St 〉 NPK 〉 NP ＋ St 〉 NP, and treatment of K fertilizer made a significant difference to NP, and the efficiency of K fertilizer in maize was higher than in wheat under rotation system of Hebei. In contrast with Shanxi, the wastage of soil potassium was a more serious issue in the rotation system in Hebei, only treatment of NPK ＋ St showed a surplus of potassium and the others showed a wane. K fertilizer and straw could improve the content of water-soluble K, nonspecifically adsorbed K, non-exchangeable K, mineral K, and total K in contrast to NP; however, K fertilizer and straw reduce the proportion of mineral K and improve proportion of other forms of potassium in the two locating sites. Compared with the beginning of orientation, temporal variability character of soil K content and proportion showed a difference between the two soil types; furthermore, there was a decrease in the content of mineral K and total K simultaneously in the two locating sites. As a whole, the effect of K fertilizer applied to soil directly excelled to wheat straw to soil. Wheat straw to soil was an effective measure to complement potassium to increase crop yield and retard the decrease of soil K.     

Cow manure and cow manure-derived biochar application as a soil amendment for reducing cadmium availability and accumulation by Brassica chinensis L. in acidic red soil

Organic amendment is a promising,in situ phytostabilization approach to alleviate the phytotoxic effects of heavy metal contaminated soils.The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of cow manure(CM)and its derived biochar(CMB)as a soil amendment on cadmium(Cd)availability and accumulation in low and high Cd-accumulating cultivars of Brassica chinensis L.grown in an acidic red soil.CM and CMB were applied to Cd-contaminated acidic red soil at the rates of 0,3.0and 6.0%(w/w).Application of CMB was significantly more effective than that of CM,as it reduced the availability of Cd in soil by 34.3–69.9%and its bioaccumulation in the low Cd accumulator,Aijiaoheiye 333,by 51.2 and 67.4%,respectively.The addition of CMB significantly increased the extractability and accumulation of trace metals(Zn,Mn,Fe,and Cu)by plants and improved plant biomass production.CMB application,combined with utilizing low Cd accumulating cultivars represents a new,sustainable strategy to alleviate the toxic effects on Cd and improve food safety.     

Functional Analysis of the Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase on the Lipid Accumulation of Peanut（Arachis hypogaea L.） Seeds

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase(PEPC;EC 4.1.1.31) catalyses phosphoenolpyruvate(PEP) to yield oxaloacetate,which is involved in protein biosynthesis.Pyruvate kinase(PK;EC 2.7.1.40) catalyzes PEP to yield pyruvate,which is involved in fatty acid synthesis.In this study,five PEPC genes(AhPEPC1,AhPEPC2,AhPEPC3,AhPEPC4,and AhPEPC5) from peanut have been cloned.Using a quantitative real-time RT-PCR approach,the expression pattern of each gene was monitored during the seed development of four peanut varieties(E11,Hebeigaoyou,Naihan 1,and Huayu 26).It was found that these five genes shared similar expression behaviors over the developmental stages of E11 with high expression levels at 30 and 40 d after pegging(DAP);whereas these five genes showed irregular expression patterns during the seed development of Hebeigaoyou.In Naihan 1 and Huayu 26,the expression levels of the five genes remained relatively high in the first stage.The PEPC activity was monitored during the seed development of four peanut varieties and seed oil content was also characterized during whole period of seed development.The PEPC activity followed the oil accumulation pattern during the early stages of development but they showed a significantly negative correlation thereafter.These results suggested that PEPC may play an important role in lipid accumulation during the seed development of four peanut varieties tested.