结皮量与含水率对尾矿风蚀影响的风洞模拟研究

尾矿风蚀是影响周边环境空气质量和人体健康的重要原因。以喀拉通克铜镍矿加乌尔尾矿库尾矿为研究对象,通过风洞实验,在不同风速条件下对不同含水率和结皮量尾矿的风蚀率、输沙结构和输沙率、颗粒碰撞数和能量进行研究。结果表明：尾矿风蚀率、输沙率、颗粒碰撞数和能量随着实验风速的增加而增加,随着尾矿含水率和结皮量的增加而减小。首次出现颗粒碰撞的风速随着尾矿含水率和结皮量的增加而增加。尾矿输沙主要集中在3cm高度内,占总输沙的50%以上。在结皮不被吹破的情况下,结皮的抗风蚀效果要优于含水率,因此,对于不同的风速,达到较好抗风蚀效果所需结皮量不同,10m/s以下风速任何结皮量均能有效降低地表风蚀,12m/s需25g以上结皮量,14m/s需要50g以上结皮量,而尾矿含水率在实验风速下需达到2.72%以上才有较好的抗风蚀效果。     

干旱区土壤结皮对风蚀影响的风洞模拟研究

土壤结皮在干旱半干旱地区广泛分布,是影响风蚀的重要因素。以准葛尔盆地东部矿区周边表层土壤为对象,通过控制土壤结皮率和结皮分布,利用风洞试验结合土壤风蚀传感器,对不同土壤结皮和风速条件下土壤风蚀量、风沙流结构、土壤颗粒释放的变化特征进行了研究。结果表明：(1)风蚀量随风速增加显著上升,随土壤结皮率增加显著下降。均匀分布的结皮风蚀量整体低于集中分布的结皮;(2)风沙流高度随风速增加而增加,高度在0-3cm的收集物占总的80%左右。14m/s的风速能够使土壤发生跃移,而土壤结皮率达到50%能够有效抑制土壤颗粒跃移现象;(3)颗粒碰撞的数量与能量随风速的增加而增加,随结皮率增加而减少;首次出现颗粒碰撞时的风速随结皮率的增加而增加;颗粒碰撞的数量和能量在风速持续增加的时间段内增加至最大值,在风速稳定后开始下降,120s左右降低至稳定值,随后不再发生明显起伏,在风速下降时间段内不发生颗粒碰撞。     

土壤结皮面积与结皮分布对风蚀影响的风洞模拟研究

土壤结皮在干旱半干旱地区广泛分布,是影响风蚀的重要因素。以准噶尔盆地东部矿区周边表层土壤为对象,通过控制土壤结皮率和结皮分布,利用风洞试验结合土壤风蚀传感器,对不同土壤结皮和风速条件下土壤风蚀量、风沙流结构、土壤颗粒释放的变化特征进行研究。结果表明:(1)风蚀量随风速增加显著上升,随土壤结皮率增加显著下降。均匀分布的结皮风蚀量整体低于集中分布的结皮;(2)跃移高度随风速增加而增加,高度在0~3 cm的收集物占总收集量的80%左右。14 m/s的风速能够使土壤发生跃移,而土壤结皮率达到50%能够有效抑制土壤颗粒跃移现象;(3)颗粒碰撞的数量与能量随风速的增加而增加,随结皮率增加而减少;首次出现颗粒碰撞时的风速随结皮率的增加而增加;颗粒碰撞的数量和能量在风速持续增加的时间段内增加至最大值,在风速稳定后开始下降,120 s左右降低至稳定值,随后不再发生明显起伏,在风速下降时间段内不发生颗粒碰撞。     

Physical characterization,spectral response and remotely sensed mapping of Mediterranean soil surface crusts

Soil surface crusting and sealing are frequent but unfavorable processes in Mediterranean areas. Soil crust and seals form on bare soil subject to high-intensity rainfall, resulting in a hard, impenetrable layer that impedes infiltration and hampers the germination and establishment of plants. The adverse consequences of overland flow and reduced fertility can lead to erosion and ongoing degradation. Therefore, information on the distribution of surface crusts and their physical properties is essential to combat the undesired effects of crust formation in e.g. soil erosion and soil compaction. We studied the occurrence of crusts in a study area in Mediterranean southern France. Our objectives were to compare the physical and hydrological properties of the crusts and underlying soil, to identify the spectral characteristics (400 to 2500 nm) of the crusted and non-crusted soil surfaces using high-resolution field spectra, and to investigate the potential of mapping crust occurrence using airborne, hyperspectral HyMap images. The differences in some physical properties between crusted and non-crusted surfaces are significant while others are only marginal. Crusting markedly reduces the infiltration capacity and crust strength varies between the different soil types. Spectral differences are small, mainly in albedo values (overall reflectance) and in absorption band depth and shape. Albedo differences range from 8 to 40%. Differences in absorption band features in the spectra of crusts and non-crusted surfaces are small. Sixty percent of the crusted soil surfaces showed stronger absorption features in the clay mineral absorption bands at 2200 nm than non-crusted soils. Increased absorption is due to a relative enrichment in fines. Spectral feature fitting and linear spectral unmixing algorithms were applied to airborne HyMap images to evaluate the possibilities of mapping surface crusts. Crusts could be mapped in fallow, agricultural fields, but the spectral response of natural badlands was too fragmented for crust mapping.     

裸露耕地土壤风蚀跃移颗粒分布特征的试验研究

以内蒙古阴山北部的典型农牧交错带耕地为试验区,利用DEM6型轻便三杯风向风速表和LV50便携式风速仪(可测瞬时风速和任一时段的平均风速),采用SC—I型沙尘采集器收集跃移沙粒,并对收集到的沙粒进行筛分、称重,详细地分析了不同高度风蚀物百分含量、输沙量等风沙运动主要影响因素的变化特征,得出了耕地土壤在风沙跃移运动中的粒径分布特征,初步了解了该地区土壤风蚀的特点,为今后风沙运动力学理论的深入研究,以及实施保护性耕作和其他土地荒漠化的防治提供依据。     

Validation of a dust production model from measurements performed in semi-arid agricultural areas of Spain and Niger

Models of two processes (saltation and sandblasting) that lead to fine dust release in arid areas have recently been combined to form a dust production model (DPM), the physical bases of which are summarized. In order to validate DPM at field scale, its predictions in terms of horizontal and vertical mass fluxes are compared to direct measurements made in natural conditions on a silt loam soil in north–east Spain during Wind Erosion and Loss of SOil Nutrients in semi-arid Spain (WELSONS) experiment and a sandy soil in Niger during the PROgramme Soil and Erosion (PROSE) experiment. In the Spanish case, due to the formation of a coalescing crust after rainfall, a limited supply of loose particles on the soil surface restricts the availability of soil aggregates for saltation. Once this supply limitation is taken into account in the saltation submodel, the vertical fluxes, predicted by DPM with the binding energies previously determined in a wind tunnel experiment, agree well with the measured ones. In the Niger case, the agreement is found to be directly satisfactory for unlimited saltation, even in crusted conditions. However, in order to retrieve measured vertical fluxes, the aggregate binding energies that constitute key factors involved in the sandblasting computation must be divided by 3. These results validate the sandblasting part of DPM but show that saltation has to be adequately tuned when a coalescing crust forms on loamy soils. These results also show that the potential of soil for fine-dust production does not increase with its clay content which rather tends to slightly reduce sandblasting efficiencies. A high clay content favours formation of a coalescing crust that efficiently traps formerly loose soil aggregates. The supply limitation resulting from this crust formation controls the importance of saltation, and hence, of fine-dust production. Finally, saltation clearly appears as the limiting factor for fine-dust production.     

Mechanical and hydraulic resistance relations in crust-topped soils

The formation of soil surface crusts leads to increased mechanical and hydraulic resistances. In this study, changes and relationships of both resistances under simulated sprinkle irrigation (or rainfall), and sprinkle followed by flooding, were examined. Results indicated that a silt-loam soil developed a thicker surface crust than a clay soil for any given kinetic energy (KE). Crusts as thick as 3.9 and 2.6 mm formed on the silt-loam and clay soils, respectively. Mechanical resistance, R_m, increased with increasing KE, where the effect was greater in the silt-loam and was attributed to intrinsic resistance and crust thickness. Steady-state infiltration rate (i) was much lower in crusted clay than crusted silt-loam soil. Changes of both R_m, and i closely followed changes in crust thickness (z_c). Thicker crusts showed more resistance against external force than thinner crusts, due to more extended particle interlocking. Obtained functions indicated that the effect of thickness on strength was more significant in the lower range of crust thickness. The effect of z_c on i strongly followed a negative power function for both soils, with higher i in the silt-loam soil.     

Tillage – impact on infiltration of the Loess Plateau of China

In arid and semiarid regions, water infiltration is often affected by the soil surface conditions, such as the soil crusts and soil roughness. The objective of this laboratory study was to assess the effects of soil crusts and tillage treatments on soil infiltration in the Loess Plateau of China. A simulated rainfall storm at 80 mm h^?1 rate was applied to soil boxes set to slopes of 5°, 10°, 15° and 20° with two soil surface conditions (crusted and uncrusted) and three tillage treatments (contour tillage [CT], artificial digging [AD] and straight slope [SS]) to investigate the infiltration rates. The results show that the infiltration rate was always lower under the SS treatment than under the CT and AD treatments. The time interval to the steady state was shorter under the SS (10 min) than under the CT and AD treatments (15–20 min). The final infiltration rate was nearly the same under the CT treatment and AD treatment; whereas, the SS treatment resulted in the lowest final infiltration rate. The infiltration rates were always greater in soils without crusts than in soils with crusts. The slopes, soil crusts and tillage treatments had significant (p < 0.001) effects on the cumulative infiltration rates. The combined effects of the slopes and tillage treatments on the cumulative infiltration rates were much more significant (p < 0.01) than the other combined effects (p < 0.05).     

黑龙江省西部风蚀荒漠化特性与防治技术

通过对黑龙江省西部风蚀荒漠化特性的研究,得出在粗糙度(Z0)为0.41cm,0-5cm土壤含水量为3.76%条件下,距地面2m和0.5m的起沙风速分别为6.04m/s和4.69m/s。地表植被盖度与风蚀强度呈负相关关系,盖度越大,风蚀强度越小。在防治技术研究中,轻度风蚀采取植物措施与栽培措施相结合的办法;中度风蚀区采用复合式沙障治理流动式沙丘,网格沙障治理固定沙丘的防治技术研究;重度风蚀区则根据不同类型不同荒漠化程度,采取"前挡后拉",行列式沙障等防治技术,防治效果明显。     

The role of the mineral component in surface stabilization processes of a disturbed desert sandy surface

The stabilization of sandy and loamy surfaces in semiarid and arid areas by topsoil crusts protecting the soil against wind or runoff erosion is well known. Destruction of such crusts, often by overgrazing, can enhance erosion and desertification. Crust recovery does not depend purely on biotic components of the crust and vegetation. Mineral components in the initial surface stabilization process are often overlooked. The present study focuses on the relative importance of the biotic and mineral components in the process of topsoil crust recovery in a sandy desert area located in the northwestern Negev Desert of Israel. Observations of the initial crust and of the disturbed surface, in the field and under the scanning electron microscope, showed that the mineral components of the crust recovered more quickly than its biotic elements. The implications for the rehabilitation of the disturbed ecosystem are discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Variations in the disintegration rate of physical crusts induced by artificial rainfall in different alcohol concentrations

Disintegration is closely correlated with geological disasters and soil erosion. However, quantitative studies on the disintegration processes of physical crust controlling the soil surface erosion are limited. Therefore, we disintegration process in structural and sedimentary crusts induced by artificial rainfall on a typical cropland soil from the Loess Plateau, China. The physical crusts were immersed for 200 s at different alcohol concentrations applied for delaying disintegration process to obtain disintegration rate (DR). The content of organic matter and the sand percentage in the structural and sedimentary crusts decreased with increasing rainfall duration, while the bulk density, silt and clay percentages increased. The initial DR values ranged from ?0.01 to 1.82 in structural crusts and from ?0.01 to 1.47 in sedimentary crusts under different alcohol concentrations. DR decreased by [86.5%, 91.3%] in structural crusts and by [86.3%, 88.2%] in sedimentary crusts during the whole disintegration period. For both structural and sedimentary crust, the DR was the lowest when the rainfall lasted for 30 min, and finally stabilized at 0.19 and 0.18, respectively, at the disintegration time of 80 s. Notably, the 50% alcohol concentration slowed the disintegration process most efficiently. The structural crust had a lower erosion resistance than the sedimentary crust due to the lower DR. These results provide a theoretical method for evaluating disintegration process and timely information revealing the erosion resistance mechanism of physical crusts.     

Saltation vs. soil stabilization: Two processes determining the character of surfaces in arid regions

In satellite images of sandy areas in arid regions disturbed (crumbled) surfaces appear much brighter than stabilized soil. From observations of Landsat satellite images that show directional surface features along the dominant wind direction, two theses are inferred concerning eolian erosion and transport: (1) transport is dominantly a near-surface phenomenon of saltation rather than of aerodynamic entrainment and later deposition; (2) both the disturbed surface characteristics in the saltating regions (saltation formations in our terminology) and the stability of the crusted soil in the quiescent regions are locally self-perpetuating.Thesis (1) is suggested by the appearance of the zones in the lee of protrusions from the surface, or even a river, that constitute obstacles (across the dominant wind directon) to particle flow. In the lee of a ridge between two “streaks” or in the lee of a protruding outcropping within a “sheet”, one finds darker zones, in contrast to the adjacent bright saltation formation. These darker zones are laterally uniform, and have to be interpreted as stable, quiescent areas of non-deposition and non-erosion.Thesis (2) is inferred from (i) the sharpness of the transition in the reflectivity at the boundaries (parallel to the dominant wind direction) between the bright “streaks” or “sheets” and the darker stable surface, and (ii) the constant width of some long quiescent areas in the wind-shadow of an isolated obstacle. Variability of wind direction, in any season of any strength, should have produced a gradual boundary. The disturbed and the stable surfaces are therefore interpreted as locally a bi-stable situation: an occasional wind will produce no effect over a stable surface, which tends to be “immune” to the oelian influences, whereas the surface in a saltation formation is prone to be disturbed anew by a comparable wind. The bistable situation is linked to positive feedback mechanisms; the most important mechanism appears to be the cohesion of the crusted surface. Such a surface can be broken only by high energy impact. The feedback mechanisms have implications for designing measures to reduce the danger of dust storms.     

An expression for wind erosion rate from dry and dense soil surface

Wind erosion is a physical process predominated by airborne grains rather than the wind itself. The soil deformation is either elastic–plastic or fully plastic during its collisions with solid grains, corresponding to dense and loose soils, respectively. Only the fully plastic deformation was previously taken into account in the physically-based wind erosion models. The impact erosion of dry and dense soil surface can be well quantified by the contact mechanics and strength theories. In this study, with the help of Owen's uniform saltation model, a simple expression for wind erosion rate is derived based upon the eroded volume per impact when soil deforms in the elastic–plastic manner. The new expression, a simple analytical function of several conventional variables and parameters of wind and soil, describes the effects of saltation flux and soil susceptibility. Its validity is verified by some field and laboratory experiments.     

民勤绿洲不同耕作方式农田表层土壤风蚀规律的风洞模拟研究

[目的]比较分析不同耕作方式下农田表层土壤防风蚀机理和效果,为区域社会经济和生态环境建设提供科学依据。[方法]利用室内风洞及相关配套设备对甘肃民勤绿洲区的免耕、少耕、秋翻和深松农田表层土壤进行风蚀测试,计算风蚀速率及输沙率,研究其风沙运动规律,分析各种耕作农田表层土壤防风蚀情况。[结果]耕作措施对土壤风蚀速率的影响与风速大小相关,风速较小时,不同耕作方式对风速的影响差异不显著,而当风速大于14 m/s后不同耕作农田表层土壤风蚀速率开始出现较明显差异;少耕、秋翻、深松等耕作方式对农田表层土壤风蚀速率和输沙率的影响差异不明显;免耕耕作方式下农田表层土壤风蚀速率和输沙率最低,风速越高,差距越大;风速、耕作以及两者交互作用对农田表层土壤风蚀速率和输沙率有极显著影响。[结论]免耕耕作能有效抵抗农田表层土壤的风蚀,大幅度减少输沙率,表现出极佳的抗风蚀效果。     

Effect of surface crusting on emergence of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr) seedlings II. Influence of tillage treatment,planting method and time of crust formation

The influence of tillage treatment and the time of crust formation after planting on the degree of surface crusting and seedling emergence of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.), planted on the flat and on ridges, are described. Crusts were developed artificially at specific times after planting. Under non-crusted conditions (control), more rapid drying of the soil in the seed zone occurred in conventionally-tilled, ridge-planted (Tcr) and minimum-tilled, flat-planted (Tmf) seedbeds compared with excessively and conventionally-tilled, flat-planted (Tef and Tcf) seedbeds. The formation of surface crusts induced a reduction in moisture loss from the seed zone. On drying, large crust blocks with a smooth surface developed in Tef plots whereas, in Tmf plots, small crust blocks with a rough surface appeared. Both the rate of emergence and the ultimate emergence of soybeans were in the order Tef > Tcf > Tcr > Tmf under non-crusted conditions and, on average, in the order Tcr > Tcf > Tef > Tmf under crusted conditions. Crusts which formed within two days of sowing were more injurious because these were hard and impenetrable, and were present at the normal time of seedling emergence. Crusts induced 72 h after planting had less effect on seedling emergence because, by the time they could form, emergence was already almost completed.     

Disturbance of biological soil crusts: impacts on potential wind erodibility of sandy desert soils in southeastern Utah

Friction threshold velocities (FTVs) were determined for biological soil crusts in different stages of recovery. Particles on the surface of crusts that had been relatively undisturbed for at least 20 years were found to have significantly higher FTVs than those that had been disturbed 5, 10 or 1 years previously (376, 87, and 46 cm sec⁻¹, respectively). FTV's for crust breakage was also much higher for undisturbed crusts when compared to the previously disturbed crusts (573, 148, and 88 cm sec⁻¹, respectively). All crusted surfaces were more stable than bare sand, which had an FTV of 16 cm sec⁻¹. Disturbance treatments were then applied to the three crustal classes. Disturbance significantly reduced the FTVs of all classes by 73–92 per cent. Comparing crustal FTVs with mean and high monthly wind speeds found in this region, it was observed that only crusts that had been undisturbed for approximately 20 years or more were able to protect soil surfaces from wind gusts expected on the average of once a month. Other crustal classes, as well as all disturbance treatments, had FTVs lower or equal to that of commonly occurring winds in this region. Because most of the crustal biomass occurs in the top 0·3 mm of soils, even slight soil loss can negatively influence stability and nutrient inputs to this ecosystem. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

模拟降雨条件下土壤结皮的发展和聚丙烯酰胺对黄土上结皮形成的影响

This study evaluated the morphological characteristics and dynamic variation in characteristics of soil crust and iden-tified the relationships between soil crust and splash erosion under simulated rainfall.The effect of polyacrylamide (PAM) on soil aggregate stabilization and crust formation was also investigated.A laboratory rainfall simulation experiment was carried out using soil sample slices.The slices were examined under a polarized light microscopy and a scanning electron microscope (SEM).The results revealed that the soil crusts were thin and were characterized by a greater density,higher shear strength,finer porosity,and lower saturated hydraulic conductivity than the underlying soil.Two types of crusts,i.e.,structural and depositional crusts,were observed.Soil texture was determined to be the most important soil variable influ-encing surface crust formation;depositional crust formation was primarily related to the skeleton characteristics of the soil and happened when the soil contained a high level of medium and large aggregates.The crust formation processes observed were as follows:1) The fine particles on the soil surface became spattered,leached,and then rough in response to raindrop impact and 2) the fine particles were washed into the subsoil pores while a compact dense layer concurrently formed at soil surface due to the continual compaction by the raindrops.Therefore,the factors that influenced structural crust formation were a large amount of fine particles in the soil surface,continual impact of raindrops,dispersion of aggregates into fine particles,and the formation of a compact dense layer concurrently at the soil surface.It was concluded that the most important factor in the formation of soil crusts was raindrop impact.When polyacrylamide (PAM) was applied,it restored the soil structure and greatly increased soil aggregate stabilization.This effectively prevented crust formation.However,this function of PAM was not continuously effective and the crust reformed with long-term rainfall.In conclusion,this study showed that soil micromorphological studies were a useful method for evaluating soil crust formation.     

干旱与重吸水对人工藻结皮光合特性的影响

通过接种蓝藻构建人工藻结皮促进荒漠地区生物结皮的生长发育以及整个荒漠生态系统的恢复,被认为是一种行之有效的荒漠化控制方法。在构建藻结皮过程中,接种的蓝藻以及形成的藻结皮,经常遭受干旱等环境条件的胁迫。本研究通过室内人工构建藻结皮,对形成的藻结皮进行干旱及重吸水处理,在此过程中监测结皮光合生物量、多糖含量以及结皮光合特性的变化规律。结果发现,干旱处理1d后,结皮蓝藻胞外多糖的分泌明显增加(p0.05);当结皮完全进入干燥状态后,结皮蓝藻停止所有代谢活动,结皮生物量及胞外多糖含量保持在一个相对稳定的水平。在结皮重吸水后,结皮初始荧光Fo能够迅速恢复,并在10 min内达到最大;之后Fo逐渐下降,同时结皮光合活性(Fv/Fm)按照函数y=ax/(b+x)逐渐上升并达到稳定。此外,在不同水分条件下,结皮光合活性随着水分的增加逐渐增加;然而结皮净光合速率(Pn)却随着水分的增加先增加后又下降,呈现单峰变化模式。该研究表明结皮蓝藻的代谢调节在人工藻结皮适应荒漠干旱环境中具有重要的作用,这对于进一步理解蓝藻乃至蓝藻结皮对干旱胁迫的适应,以及荒漠化防治中人工藻结皮的构建、维护、管理具有重要的理论与实践意义。     

Soil sealing and crusting effects on infiltration rate: a critical review of shortfalls in prediction models and solutions

Soil sealing and crusting is a common feature in most arid and semi-arid soils with severe agricultural and environmental implications. One of the main effects of soil sealing and crusting is a marked reduction in hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate (IR), which triggers run-off and erosion. However, measurement of crust IR in the field is cumbersome, time-consuming and expensive. The extremely dynamic nature of processes involved in crusting and crust characteristics makes it very difficult to measure and predict infiltration. Resultantly, many researches aimed at identifying alternative indices of soil sealing and crusting or at improving the methods used to measure IR on crusted soils directly or indirectly have been conducted. Of particular importance is the use of models developed for estimating IR and hydraulic conductivity, but most of them do not account for the presence of a crust layer and therefore fall short on crusted soils. These methods and in particular models and their suitability in estimating IRs on crusted soils are discussed in this article. Trends and perspectives, gaps and conflicts relating to soil sealing and crusting effects on infiltration are also described.