A survey of teaching and implementation: the veterinarian's role in recognizing and reporting abuse.

Many families seeking assistance from domestic violence agencies are known to local humane societies or animal control officials because of previous incidents of animal abuse. This is because pets are often the first victims of family disputes that erupt into violence. Analysis of domestic violence statistics indicates that veterinarians potentially treat hundreds of thousands of abused pets each year. Because veterinarians may be the first or only individuals to have access to abusive family situations, it is it important for veterinarians to be aware of potential signs of abuse of pets and their owners and to be familiar with the mechanisms for reporting suspected incidents of abuse. Thirty-one North American veterinary schools and a sample of large and small animal practitioners in Indiana were surveyed to understand to what degree current veterinary curricula prepare students to recognize abuse of animal patients and human clients and to what extent practitioners recognize and report their suspicions of abuse to appropriate authorities. The data indicate a discrepancy between beliefs about prevalence of abuse and the amount of time spent educating veterinary students to recognize and report that abuse. I hypothesize that: 1) practicing veterinarians are reluctant to report suspicions of domestic family violence directed against animals, children, or spouses for various reasons (e.g., lack of adequate training, fear of litigation, time constraints, fear that violence will escalate, belief that it is not their place to intervene, lack of contact information, fear of losing a client's business); 2) practicing veterinarians (in large and small animal practices) may not be aware that animal patients and human clients may have been abused and being unfamiliar with this diagnosis, are unfamiliar with the mechanism for reporting the abuse, especially when it involves human victims; and 3) veterinary school curricula could be modified so that veterinary students are trained to recognize human and animal abuse, thereby reducing risks to animal patients, other animals in the household, and human clients. I believe that recognition of animal and human abuse is in line with veterinarians' responsibilities to protect animal health, relieve animal suffering, and promote public health.     

Infection control practices and zoonotic disease risks among veterinarians in the United States

OBJECTIVE-To assess the knowledge and use of infection control practices (ICPs) among US veterinarians. DESIGN-Anonymous mail-out population survey. PROCEDURES-In 2005 a questionnaire was mailed to US small animal, large animal, and equine veterinarians who were randomly selected from the AVMA membership to assess precaution awareness (PA) and veterinarians' perceptions of zoonotic disease risks. Respondents were assigned a PA score (0 to 4) on the basis of their responses (higher scores representing higher stringency of ICPs); within a practice type, respondents' scores were categorized as being within the upper 25% or lower 75% of scores (high and low PA ranking, respectively). Characteristics associated with low PA rankings were assessed. RESULTS-Generally, respondents did not engage in protective behaviors or use personal protective equipment considered appropriate to protect against zoonotic disease transmission. Small animal and equine veterinarians employed in practices that had no written infection control policy were significantly more likely to have low PA ranking. Male gender was associated with low PA ranking among small animal and large animal veterinarians; equine practitioners not working in a teaching or referral hospital were more likely to have low PA ranking than equine practitioners working in such institutions. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE-Results indicated that most US veterinarians are not aware of appropriate personal protective equipment use and do not engage in practices that may help reduce zoonotic disease transmission. Gender differences may influence personal choices for ICPs. Provision of information and training on ICPs and establishment of written infection control policies could be effective means of improving ICPs in veterinary practices.     

Education needs in veterinary epidemiology in the Caribbean

This paper reviews the livestock situation in the Caribbean countries including animal populations, common disease problems and some of the factors relating to disease control. It refers to the particular training needs of veterinarians that would best serve the type of epidemiological investigations required to control diseases in the area. It emphasizes the practical approach and considerations that veterinarians must exercise in dealing with the particular sociological and cultural factors of each country. Reference is also made to the problems of training and then retaining an adequate number of veterinarians in the area.     

Use of participatory epidemiology to compare the clinical veterinary knowledge of pastoralists and veterinarians in East Africa

Because of severe resource and logistical constraints in large areas of Africa, disease surveillance systems need to maximize the use of information provided by livestock keepers and make correct interpretations of indigenous livestock knowledge. This paper describes the use of participatory epidemiology (PE) to compare the names, clinical signs and epidemiological features of cattle diseases as perceived by pastoralists and veterinarians. Using results from two previous studies with pastoralists in southern Sudan and Kenya, provisional translations of local disease names into modern veterinary terminology were used to develop a matrix scoring method for use with veterinarians. Matrix scoring data from pastoralists and veterinarians were then compared using simple visual comparison of summarized matrices, hierarchical cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling. The results showed good agreement between pastoralists' and veterinarians' disease names and diagnostic criteria. The matrix scoring method was easy to use and appropriate for use in under-resourced areas with minimal professional support or laboratory services. Matrix scoring could be used to assist livestock disease surveillance workers to design surveillance systems that make better use of pastoralist's indigenous knowledge and correctly interpret local disease names. The method should be combined with conventional veterinary investigation methods where feasible.     

Use of Aspiration Method for Collecting Brain Samples for Rabies Diagnosis in Small Wild Animals

In developing countries such as Brazil, where canine rabies is still a considerable problem, samples from wildlife species are infrequently collected and submitted for screening for rabies. A collaborative study was established involving environmental biologists and veterinarians for rabies epidemiological research in a specific ecological area located at the Sao Paulo State, Brazil. The wild animals’ brains are required to be collected without skull damage because the skull’s measurements are important in the identification of the captured animal species. For this purpose, samples from bats and small mammals were collected using an aspiration method by inserting a plastic pipette into the brain through the magnum foramen. While there is a progressive increase in the use of the plastic pipette technique in various studies undertaken, it is also appreciated that this method could foster collaborative research between wildlife scientists and rabies epidemiologists thus improving rabies surveillance.     

Animal health: foundation of a safe, secure, and abundant food supply

During the past century, reductions in animal diseases have resulted in a safer, more uniform, and more economical food supply. In the United States, the passage of the 1906 Federal Meat Inspection Act mandated better sanitary conditions for slaughter and processing, as well as inspection of live animals and their processed products. Following World War II, Congress passed the Poultry Products Inspection Act. Both acts are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). The USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is responsible for regulations governing the health of live animals prior to slaughter. This article is a brief overview of the ways in which the current predominance of zoonotics among emerging diseases underscores the importance of veterinary health professionals and the need for continued coordination between animal-health and public-health officials. Examples of intersections between animal- and public-health concerns include bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and Johne's disease, as well as extending beyond food safety to diseases such as avian influenza (AI). In the United States, we have in place an extensive public and private infrastructure to address animal-health issues, including the necessary expertise and resources to address animal-health emergencies. However, many challenges remain, including a critical shortage of food-animal veterinarians. These challenges can be met by recruiting and training a cadre of additional food-supply veterinarians, pursuing new technologies, collaborating with public-health officials to create solutions, and sending a clear and consistent message to the public about important animal-health issues.     

The present and future veterinary practitioners in the tropics

Summary

The tropical countries’ inability to maintain veterinary services in the realm of the state as well as the improved quality of privately provided animal health services are leading to a change in the role, and type, of veterinarians in most of the tropics. Although control of epizootics diseases will continue to be important, further attention has to be given to the equally important nutritional deficiencies and management related diseases. These changes will have implications for the position of veterinarians as well as for animal health related research and training. The present overproduction of veterinarians in some tropical and subtropical countries can not be absorbed in private practice, especially in view of the continuing role of animal health technicians and lay personnel in disease control.     

Use of Multicriteria Risk Ranking of Zoonotic Diseases in a Developing Country: Case Study of Mongolia

Many developing countries face significant health burdens associated with a high incidence of endemic zoonoses and difficulties in integrated control measures for both the human and animal populations. The objective of this study was to develop and apply a multicriteria ranking model for zoonoses in Mongolia, a country highly affected by zoonotic disease, to inform optimal resource allocation at the national level. Diseases were evaluated based on their impact on human health, livestock sector health and the wider society through affects on the economic value of livestock, as well as the feasibility of control in both the human and livestock population. Data on disease in Mongolia were collected from various government departments including the Mongolian State Central Laboratory, the Mongolian Department of Veterinary and Animal Breeding, the Mongolian Ministry of Health, Mongolian National Center for Communicable Diseases, the National Center for Zoonotic Disease and expert opinion from a workshop with a number of Mongolian Government officials and researchers. A combined score for both impact of the disease and feasibility of its control was calculated. Five zoonotic diseases were determined to be of high priority from this assessment (i.e. ovine brucellosis, echinococcosis (hydatids), rabies, anthrax and bovine brucellosis). The results supported some of the findings for high‐priority diseases (namely brucellosis, rabies and anthrax) from a previous priority setting exercise carried out in Mongolia in 2011, but also identified and ranked additional animal diseases of public health importance. While the process of model development was largely Mongolian specific, the experience of developing and parameterizing this multicriteria ranking model could be replicated by other countries where zoonoses have substantive impacts on both animal and human health.     

The Schmallenberg virus epidemic in Europe—2011–2013

During the Schmallenberg virus (SBV) epidemic, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) collected data on SBV occurrence across Europe in order to provide an assessment of spread and impact. By May 2013, twenty-nine countries were reporting to EFSA and twenty-two countries had reported cases of SBV. The total number of SBV herds reported was 13,846 and the number of SBV laboratory confirmed herds was 8730. The surveillance activities were based on the detection of SBV clinical cases (either adults or newborns). Malformation in newborns was the most commonly reported clinical sign of SBV-infection. All countries were able to provide the date when the first suspicion of SBV in the herd was reported and nineteen could report the location of the herd at a regional level. This allowed the spread of SBV in Europe to be measured both temporally and spatially. The number of SBV confirmed herds started to increase in December 2011 and two peaks were observed in 2012 (February and May). Confirmed herds continued to be reported in 2012 and into 2013. An increase during winter 2012 and spring 2013 was again observed, but the number of confirmed herds was lower than in the previous year. SBV spread rapidly throughout Europe from the initial area of detection. SBV was detected above the latitude of 60° North, which exceeds the northern expansion observed during the bluetongue virus serotype 8 epidemic in 2006–2009. The impact of SBV was calculated as ratio of the number of herds with at least one malformed SBV positive foetus and the total number of herds in this region. The 75th percentile of the malformations ratio in the various affected countries for the whole reporting period was below 1% and 3% for cattle and sheep herds, respectively. International data collection on emerging diseases represents a challenge as the nature of available data, data quality and the proportion of reported cases may vary widely between affected countries. Surveillance activities on emerging animal diseases are often structured only for case detection making the estimation of infection/diseases prevalence and the investigation of risk factors difficult. The impact of the disease must be determined to allow risk managers to take appropriate decisions. Simple within-herd impact indicators suitable for emerging disease outbreaks should be defined that could be measured as part of routine animal health surveillance programmes and allow for rapid and reliable impact assessment of emerging animal health diseases.     

Metrics for quantifying antimicrobial use in beef feedlots

Accurate antimicrobial drug use data are needed to enlighten discussions regarding the impact of antimicrobial drug use in agriculture. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the perceived accuracy and clarity of different methods for reporting antimicrobial drug use information collected regarding beef feedlots. Producers, veterinarians, industry representatives, public health officials, and other knowledgeable beef industry leaders were invited to complete a web-based survey. A total of 156 participants in 33 US states, 4 Canadian provinces, and 8 other countries completed the survey. No single metric was considered universally optimal for all use circumstances or for all audiences. To effectively communicate antimicrobial drug use data, evaluation of the target audience is critical to presenting the information. Metrics that are most accurate need to be carefully and repeatedly explained to the audience.     

Assessment of avian influenza surveillance and reporting needs of stakeholders in Michigan, 2007

OBJECTIVE: To identify stakeholders who should be included in a Michigan-based avian influenza surveillance system (AISS) and to describe their avian influenza (AI) surveillance and reporting needs. Design: Cross-sectional survey involving a convenience sample of respondents. Sample: 272 federal, state, and local governmental and regulatory agency professionals; veterinarians and laboratory professionals in academia; private practice veterinarians; and poultry industry members. Procedures: A needs assessment survey that focused on stakeholder identification, current surveillance methods, information sharing, and desired AISS enhancements was administered by mail, and responses were summarized. Results: Various AISS stakeholders were identified, among whom the requirements for surveillance information and methods of reporting (including via a World Wide Web-based database, e-mail, and a website) differed. Although 90% of all respondent types indicated that poultry industry representatives were key stakeholders, < 33% of poultry industry respondents indicated that private practice veterinarians and personnel in laboratories or public agencies should be considered stakeholders. The predominant concern (55.4% of respondents) regarding the current AISS was the effectiveness of communication among agencies, industry, and the public. The primary challenge identified by respondents was confidentiality (30.2% of respondents). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In Michigan-and potentially in other regions of the United States-integration of Internet-related data systems and stakeholder communication is likely to promote earlier identification of AI, achieve more effective responses to outbreaks, reduce morbidity among humans and other animals, and decrease outbreak-associated financial losses. Stakeholder education and technological safeguard assurances will be essential in AISS enhancement.     

Institutional training programs for research personnel conducted by laboratory-animal veterinarians

Research institutions are required by federal law and national standards to ensure that individuals involved in animal research are appropriately trained in techniques and procedures used on animals. Meeting these requirements necessitates the support of institutional authorities; policies for the documentation and enforcement of training; resources to support and provide training programs; and high-quality, effective educational material. Because of their expertise, laboratory-animal veterinarians play an essential role in the design, implementation, and provision of educational programs for faculty, staff, and students in biomedical research. At large research institutions, provision of a training program for animal care and use personnel can be challenging because of the animal-research enterprise's size and scope. At the University of Michigan (UM), approximately 3,500 individuals have direct contact with animals used in research. We describe a comprehensive educational program for animal care and use personnel designed and provided by laboratory-animal veterinarians at UM and discuss the challenges associated with its implementation.     

International programs and veterinary public health in the Americas—Success, challenges, and possibilities

The veterinary public health (VPH) program at the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) began in 1949 when an arrangement with the newly founded World Health Organization made PAHO its Regional Office for the Americas to serve as the specialized health agency both for the Organization of American States and the United Nations. It started as a Section of Veterinary Medicine to help eradicate rabies on both sides of the US-Mexico border, and PAHO grew to be the biggest VPH program in the world. By providing a political and technical base, PAHO assisted its member states to organize and develop their national VPH programs and activities, and it provides technical cooperation and works with their national counterparts to solve national and local problems.In the 1980s and 1990s, PAHO concentrated that cooperation on several, specific needs: the elimination of dog-transmitted human rabies, hemispheric eradication of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), regional action planning for food safety, control/eradication of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis, and surveillance and prevention of emerging zoonoses and food-borne diseases. The Pan American centers developed a number of diagnostic antigens and a continental system for the surveillance of FMD and vesicular diseases, using geographic quadrant technology to augment sensitivity, analyze data, and make decisions. Another visible accomplishment is the elimination of hydatidosis in the endemic countries and regions of the southern cone.In addition, the VPH program of PAHO pioneered the mobilization of the private sector to participate in official programs. Nevertheless, privatization of animal and human health services has had a negative effect on human resources and infrastructure by weakening essential epidemiological functions in some countries.Today, there is a need for closer coordination between veterinary medicine and medical services. Practically all potential bioterrorism agents are zoonoses, and it is cost-effective to control them at the veterinary level, providing the first line of defense. The opportunities for VPH are boundless, but the challenge is to be able to apply the plethora of available research results and knowledge. What we will need is a new breed of veterinarians who will lead and provide us with a vision, like those we honored in 2005 at the Schwabe Symposium Honoring the Lifetime Achievements of Dr. James H. Steele: veterinarians in public health who will be in the forefront of policy setting, decision-making, and allocation of resources, and veterinarians who will articulate and provide a strategic direction to our unique professional skills.     

Stakeholder position paper: food animal veterinarian

Food animal veterinarians practice in a variety of settings with considerable differences between the settings. Due to variability, aggregate data from surveillance of antimicrobial use is not very useful to practitioners unless correlated information is provided, such as the relative disease status, ages of animals, and purpose of use. Of greater utility is use data as it relates to a specific farm or production system. Of greater importance to clinical practitioners is a meaningful surveillance system that tracks trends in antimicrobial resistance in common pathogens causing animal diseases.     

International programs and veterinary public health in the Americas--success, challenges, and possibilities

The veterinary public health (VPH) program at the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) began in 1949 when an arrangement with the newly founded World Health Organization made PAHO its Regional Office for the Americas to serve as the specialized health agency both for the Organization of American States and the United Nations. It started as a Section of Veterinary Medicine to help eradicate rabies on both sides of the US-Mexico border, and PAHO grew to be the biggest VPH program in the world. By providing a political and technical base, PAHO assisted its member states to organize and develop their national VPH programs and activities, and it provides technical cooperation and works with their national counterparts to solve national and local problems. In the 1980s and 1990s, PAHO concentrated that cooperation on several, specific needs: the elimination of dog-transmitted human rabies, hemispheric eradication of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), regional action planning for food safety, control/eradication of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis, and surveillance and prevention of emerging zoonoses and food-borne diseases. The Pan American centers developed a number of diagnostic antigens and a continental system for the surveillance of FMD and vesicular diseases, using geographic quadrant technology to augment sensitivity, analyze data, and make decisions. Another visible accomplishment is the elimination of hydatidosis in the endemic countries and regions of the southern cone. In addition, the VPH program of PAHO pioneered the mobilization of the private sector to participate in official programs. Nevertheless, privatization of animal and human health services has had a negative effect on human resources and infrastructure by weakening essential epidemiological functions in some countries. Today, there is a need for closer coordination between veterinary medicine and medical services. Practically all potential bioterrorism agents are zoonoses, and it is cost-effective to control them at the veterinary level, providing the first line of defense. The opportunities for VPH are boundless, but the challenge is to be able to apply the plethora of available research results and knowledge. What we will need is a new breed of veterinarians who will lead and provide us with a vision, like those we honored in 2005 at the Schwabe Symposium Honoring the Lifetime Achievements of Dr. James H. Steele: veterinarians in public health who will be in the forefront of policy setting, decision-making, and allocation of resources, and veterinarians who will articulate and provide a strategic direction to our unique professional skills.     

Yersinia pestis: examining wildlife plague surveillance in China and the USA

Plague is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis Lehmann and Neumann, 1896. Although it is essentially a disease of rodents, plague can also be transmitted to people. Historically, plague has caused massive morbidity and mortality events in human populations, and has recently been classified as a reemerging disease in many parts of the world. This public health threat has led many countries to set up wild and domestic animal surveillance programs in an attempt to monitor plague activity that could potentially spill over into human populations. Both China and the USA have plague surveillance programs in place, but the disease dynamics differ in each country. We present data on plague seroprevalence in wildlife and review different approaches for plague surveillance in the 2 countries. The need to better comprehend plague dynamics, combined with the fact that there are still several thousand human plague cases per year, make well-designed wildlife surveillance programs a critical part of both understanding plague risks to humans and preventing disease outbreaks in the future.     

Development of a computerized dairy herd health data base for epidemiologic research

A computerized information system for disease surveillance, management and herd health service is presented. The objectives are to describe the incentive method of data collection used to maintain the participation of the farmers and veterinarians in the program, to describe techniques used to select cow records for epidemiologic research and to present incidence rates for the major dairy diseases seen during the study period, 1980–1984. Participating farmers recorded animal events on a daily basis, and their veterinarians recorded the results of all diagnoses and treatments. The data were processed and returned to the farmers and the veterinarians in weekly and monthly reports. The farmers and the veterinarians found that the reports returned to them were useful in managing the health of the herd, and this served as the incentive for continued participation in the program. Lactational incidence rates of the most common clinical dairy diseases were 17.5, 15.1 and 12.8% for metritis, mastitis and cystic follicles, respectively.     

The significance of surveillance and reporting on the prevention and control of equine diseases.

Examples of equine disease surveillance at the local, regional, national and international level are discussed in this article. Reporting systems at each level are also considered, and the increasing importance of laboratory confirmed diagnoses is emphasized. The need to develop national disease reporting systems is addressed, particularly with respect to conforming to international trading standards.