The potential of small ruminant farming as a means of poverty alleviation in rural southern India

Small ruminant production has the potential to address the global challenge of greatly increased food production in impoverished rural areas in a manner that is socioeconomically sustainable and carbon efficient. Twenty-six small ruminant landless farmers in three villages in the Kanchipuram District of the state of Tamil Nadu were surveyed with regard to their sheep farming practice and production indices, with the preliminary aim of evaluating the potential of small ruminant farming in alleviating poverty in parts of rural in southern India. The small ruminant farmers reared mostly indigenous Madras Red sheep as a means of generating primary or supplementary income. Participatory interviews were undertaken to enable the completion of a questionnaire pertaining to sheep production over the four most recent annual production cycles (referred to as instances) at the time of the study. When calculating the annual farm profits without taking into consideration the opportunity cost of labour, 83% of annual sheep production cycles over a 4-year period added to household incomes. Further, 23% of the instances that accounted for the opportunity cost of labour, household income was raised above the Indian Government’s defined poverty line solely through small ruminant farming. Management practices were identified, while participating in landless farmer interviews provided an insight into the husbandry, or lack thereof, which resulted in low lambing percentages and rates of high ewe losses, perinatal lamb mortality and abortion. The study showed both the vulnerability and potential resilience of small ruminant farming to natural disaster, in this case catastrophic flooding in 2015. While small ruminant farming generated income in most instances, the way it is practiced creates opportunities for simple changes in husbandry and management that could make it more efficient in poverty alleviation.

     

Contribution of family labour to the profitability and competitiveness of small-scale dairy production systems in central Mexico

The objective of this work was to determine the effect of family labour on the profitability and competitiveness of small-scale dairy farms in the highlands of Central Mexico. Economic data from 37 farms were analysed from a stratified statistical sampling with a Neyman assignment. Three strata were defined taking herd size as criterion. Stratum 1: herds from 3 to 9 cows plus replacements, Stratum 2: herds from 10 to 19 cows and Stratum 3: herds from 20 to 30 cows. The policy analysis matrix was used as the method to determine profitability and competitiveness. The coefficient of private profitability (CPP) when the economic cost of family labour is included in the cost structure was 8.0 %, 31.0 % and 46.0 %. When the economic cost of family labour is not included, CPP increase to 47.0 %, 57.0 % and 66.0 % for each strata, respectively. The private cost ratio (PCR) when family labour is included was 0.79, 0.51 and 0.42 for strata 1, 2 and 3, respectively. When family labour is not included, the PCR was 0.07, 0.25 and 0.26. Net profit per litre of milk including family labour was US$0.03 l^-1 for Stratum 1, US$0.09 for Stratum 2 and US$0.12 l^-1 for Stratum 3; but increased to $0.12, 0.14 and 0.15, respectively, when the economic cost of family labour is not included. It is concluded that family labour is a crucial factor in the profitability and competitiveness of small-scale dairy production.     

An economic analysis of the impact of subclinical (mild) necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens

Costs to broiler producers associated with subclinical (mild) necrotic enteritis (SNE) were estimated using published information on impacts on body weight and feed conversion rate (FCR) associated with SNE and costs and revenues associated with broiler production. Estimates were expressed in U.S. dollars from the perspective of poultry producers. SNE was estimated to result in a 12% reduction in body weight and a 10.9% increase in FCR compared with healthy birds. For the purposes of this analysis, we considered scenarios involving hypothetical flocks of 20,000 birds raised to final body weights ranging from 4.63 to 7.94 lb. The incidence of SNE was assumed to occur at 20% based on the literature. For flocks raised for the length of time required to reach these target weights, SNE resulted in a loss to producers ranging from US$878.19 to US$1480.52 per flock. When feed costs required to obtain SNE flocks having a total live body weight equal to equivalent healthy flocks at market age were calculated, the increased cost to producers ranged from US$370.49 to US$739.38 per flock. SNE has the potential to cause a significant negative economic impact in broiler flocks. Strategies to reduce the incidence of SNE may help to increase the profitability of broiler production.     

Expected consequences of including methane footprint into the breeding goals in beef cattle. A Spanish Blonde d'Aquitaine population as a case of study

This study evaluates two potential scenarios for including methane (CH₄) emissions in the breeding objectives of beef cattle, using the Spanish population of Blonde d′Aquitaine as a case of study. First, CH₄ emissions were included as a cost using a shadow carbon price of 1.22€/CH₄ kg (0.044€/CO₂ kg) (carbon tax scenario). In the other scenario, a CH₄ quota was applied, optimizing emissions per unit of product. The current production system was used as benchmark scenario (Scenario 1). The economic value of CH₄ was calculated under all scenarios using a bioeconomic model that translated the production system into a mathematical function. Then, CH₄ emissions were included with proper relative weight in the selection index under each scenario. The economic value of CH₄ production from cows was ?0.54€/year and ?0.16€/year in a carbon tax and in a CH₄ quota scenario, respectively. Economic values for CH₄ production from fattening calves were ?1.22€/year and ?0.34€/year in a carbon tax and a quota scenario, respectively. The relative weights of total CH₄ traits in the indices were 4.9% and 1.8% in a carbon tax and quota scenario. The carbon tax scenario led to smaller cows (?7.59 kg of mature weight) and a decrease in carcass weight gain of calves (?4.78 g/day) involving a reduction in emissions in comparison with Scenario 1 (?0.76 CH₄ kg/slaughtered calf/year). However, it also led to a lower expected gain in profit per unit of product (?7.86 €/slaughtered calf/year). A carbon quota scenario would select slightly smaller cows (?0.48 kg) with similar responses in maternal abilities (age at first calving, calving interval, maternal weaning weight, and calving ease) and growth, and lower emissions (?0.22 CH₄ kg/slaughtered calf/year) regarding the benchmark scenario. Profit per cow would increase by +1.52€/slaughtered calf/year although this scenario implies a reduction in the number of cows per herd. In a carbon tax scenario, higher reduction in emissions implied a reduction of profitability per animal.     

Use of simulation modeling to estimate herd-level sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of diagnostic tests for detection of tuberculosis in cattle

OBJECTIVE: To estimate herd-level sensitivity (HSe), specificity (HSp), and predictive values for a positive (HPVP) and negative (HPVN) test result for several testing scenarios for detection of tuberculosis in cattle by use of simulation modeling. SAMPLE POPULATION: Empirical distributions of all herds (15,468) and herds in a 10-county area (1,016) in Michigan. PROCEDURE: 5 test scenarios were simulated: scenario 1, serial interpretation of the caudal fold tuberculin (CFT) test and comparative cervical test (CCT); scenario 2, serial interpretation of the CFT test and CCT, microbial culture for mycobacteria, and polymerase chain reaction assay; scenario 3, same as scenario 2 but specificity was fixed at 1.0; and scenario 4, sensitivity was 0.9 (scenario 4a) or 0.95 (scenario 4b), and specificity was fixed at 1.0. RESULTS: Estimates for HSe were reasonably high, ranging between 0.712 and 0.840. Estimates for HSp were low when specificity was not fixed at 1.0. Estimates of HPVP were low for scenarios 1 and 2 (0.042 and 0.143, respectively) but increased to 1.0 when specificity was fixed at 1.0. The HPVN remained high for all 5 scenarios, ranging between 0.995 and 0.997. As herd size increased, HSe increased and HSp and HPVP decreased. However, fixing specificity at 1.0 had only minor effects on HSp and HPVN, but HSe was low when the herd size was small. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Tests used for detecting cattle herds infected with tuberculosis work well on a herd basis. Herds with < approximately 100 cattle should be tested more frequently or for a longer duration than larger herds to ensure that these small herds are free of tuberculosis.     

Effects of breeding date,weaning date,and grazing season length on profitability of cow-calf production systems in southeastern Montana

Production data from 11 southeastern Montana ranches were used to parameterize a bio-economic computer model of cow/calf range production. Effects of changes in breeding date, weaning date, and range removal date on system performance for a ranch with a fixed forage resource base (3,060 animal unit months of range forage and 744 t of hay) were simulated. Input costs were locally established in 1994. Cattle prices were determined by week from 13-yr averages. For the base scenario, breeding season was 66 d with breeding starting on June 9. Weaning, range removal, and calf sales occurred on November 3. Cows were fed stored forages from November 3 until turnout to grazing (May 1). Five replications were simulated for combinations of breeding, weaning, and range removal dates in a factorial design. Each factor was deviated from the base scenario by +/- 14 and 28 d. Production efficiency was measured by break-even steer price. Gross margin (gross revenue - variable costs) was used as a measure of profitability. Increasing calf age (and weight) at sale time, by decreasing breeding date and(or) increasing weaning date, improved ranch efficiency and profitability. Increasing range removal date improved system performance even though extending the grazing season led to decreased herd size. Compared to the base system, the best system increased gross margin by approximately 17%. Responses for gross margin reflect the dynamics of herd size, purchased feed expense, and production efficiency. Results suggest that for range-based cow-calf enterprises in the northern Great Plains, production efficiency and profitability may be improved by increasing calf weaning age and extending the grazing season, even if herd size must be reduced.     

Economic evaluation of the surveillance and intervention programme for bluetongue virus serotype 8 in Switzerland

Empirical analyses founded on sound economic principles are essential in advising policy makers on the efficiency of resource use for disease mitigation. Surveillance and intervention are resource-using activities directed at mitigation. Surveillance helps to offset negative disease effects by promoting successful intervention. Intervention is the process of implementing measures (e.g. vaccination or medication) to reduce or remove a hazard in a population. The scale and ratios in which the two are combined affect the efficiency of mitigation, its costs, benefits, and thus net effect on society's well-being. The Swiss national mitigation programme for bluetongue virus serotype 8 was used as case study to investigate the economic efficiency of mitigation. In 2008, Switzerland implemented a vaccination programme to avoid and reduce disease and infection in its ruminant population. To monitor the vaccination programme and the vector dynamics, a surveillance system consisting of serological and entomological surveillance was established. Retrospective analyses for the years 2008-2009 and prospective analyses for the years 2010-2012 were conducted to investigate if the mitigation programme was economically beneficial. In the retrospective analysis, the implemented programme (=comparative scenario) was compared to a hypothesised baseline scenario of voluntary vaccination and surveillance. In the prospective analysis, the comparative scenario assumed to continue was compared to two baseline scenarios: one of voluntary vaccination combined with surveillance and one of no vaccination combined with surveillance. For each scenario, monetary surveillance, intervention and disease costs were calculated. The comparison of baseline and comparative scenarios yielded estimates for the total benefit (=disease costs avoided), margin over intervention cost and the net value of the programme. For 2008-2009, in aggregate, the mean biannual total benefit was 17.46 m Swiss francs (CHF) (1CHF=0.66€ at the time of analysis) and the mean net benefit after subtraction of the intervention and surveillance cost was 3.95 m CHF. For the three years 2010-2012, overall net costs were estimated at 12.93 m and 8.11 m CHF, respectively, for comparison of the implemented mitigation programme with the two baseline scenarios. It was concluded that the surveillance and intervention programme implemented in 2008-2009 was economically beneficial, while its continuation in the same form in 2010-2012 would produce net costs. These costs were due to the mean intervention cost remaining constant at a level of approximately 11 m CHF per year while the mean total benefit would be gradually reduced in 2010-2012 due to the reduced occurrence of disease in a fully vaccinated population.     

Socioeconomic characteristics of urban and peri-urban dairy production systems in the North western Ethiopian highlands

In order to evaluate the socio-economic characteristics of urban and peri-urban dairy production systems in the North western Ethiopian highlands, a field survey was conducted which included 256 farms. It is concluded that urban farmers tend to specialize on dairy production and support the family income from non-agricultural activities, while agricultural activities other than milk production forms an additional source of income in peri-urban farms. The specialization of urban dairy producers includes the more frequent use of crossbred cows with higher milk yield. Urban and peri-urban dairy production contributes to food security of the population and family income of the farmers’ families, but also provides a job opportunity for otherwise unemployed people. Access to farm land, level of education and access to certain input services such as training, veterinary and credit services were identified as the major constraints for the future development of the dairy sector.     

黄土高原-青藏高原过渡带农户生产系统的能量平衡分析——以“通渭-渭源-夏河”样带为例

黄土高原-青藏高原过渡带是全球生态环境最脆弱、变化最剧烈、对气候变化响应最敏感的区域之一。能量是维持生态系统结构与功能可持续性的动力,是衡量农业系统生态与生产效益的重要指标。本研究在黄土高原-青藏高原过渡带东西方向上建立通渭(TW)-渭源(WY)-夏河(XH)样带,分析农户生产系统的能量平衡特征及其沿海拔的变化规律和影响因素。结果表明:1)作物生产系统,户均能量投入、能量产出、能量收益、能量效率从黄土高原向青藏高原逐渐减少。农户占比50%时,通渭和渭源的户均能量净收益分别为104.80和44.59 GJ。2)家畜生产系统,渭源的户均能量投入最高,夏河最低;农户占比为50%时,夏河、通渭和渭源的户均能量净收益为分别为160.42、-47.43和-55.25 GJ;能量产出、能量收益和能量效率均随海拔升高而逐渐增加。3)作物-家畜综合系统,能量投入依次为渭源>通渭>夏河,能量产出、能量收益和能量效率依次为夏河>通渭>渭源;农户占比为50%时,户均能量收益阈值夏河、渭源和通渭地区分别为91.54、16.50和76.98 GJ,此时,农户占比对能量变化最敏感,调控农户的能量投入能够最大化收益。4)农户生产系统的Shannon-Wiener多样性指数、Pielou均匀度指数与能量效率间均呈显著相关(P<0.05);结构方程模型(SEM)显示,海拔是影响作物-家畜生产系统能量效率的关键因素(P<0.05)。研究结果可对青藏高原-黄土高原过渡区农业可持续发展和政策制订提供科学依据。     

我国蚕茧生产成本的经济分析

对近 2 0年来我国蚕业生产发展与蚕茧生产成本及蚕农收益的关系进行了实证分析。结果表明 :近 2 0年来我国蚕茧生产成本呈先增后降的趋势 ;蚕茧生产成本中人工费用的比例大于物质费用的比例 ;与其它竞争作物相比 ,蚕茧生产成本相对较高 ,比较效益较低。采用省力化养蚕技术 ,降低蚕茧生产成本中人工费用对于提高蚕农收益 ,促进蚕丝业发展具有重要意义。     

我国蚕茧生产成本变化的实证分析

以时间和空间为维度,梳理了1991～2010年间我国蚕茧生产成本资料,从蚕茧生产成本与蚕农收益的关系、蚕茧生产成本波动及成本结构的变化、7个蚕茧主产省(区)的蚕茧生产成本比较、蚕茧与其它农作物的比较效益等方面进行实证分析。结果表明:蚕茧生产成本变化与养蚕收益的变化有密切关系;全国蚕茧生产成本在1991～2010年明显呈现出"谷—峰—谷—峰"的变化特征;蚕茧生产总成本中人工费用占比明显高于物质费用;7个蚕茧主产省(区)的蚕茧生产成本相比较,四川省的生产成本最低,陕西省最高;与其它竞争作物蔬菜、水果、棉花相比,蚕茧生产成本依旧相对较高,比较效益较低。创新省力化养蚕技术及培育高产蚕、桑新品种,提高蚕农收益,是保障蚕丝业可持续发展的关键。     

Opinions of Spanish pig producers on the role,the level and the risk to public health of antimicrobial use in pigs

Antimicrobial use is a major driver of antimicrobial resistance and prescribers (physicians and veterinarians) and end users (patients, food producers and pet owners) are the cornerstones of this scenario. Intensive pig farming is a livestock activity that has a high antimicrobial use. This study is based on the opinions of pig producers.     

Breeding objectives for Targhee sheep

Breeding objectives were developed for Targhee sheep under rangeland production conditions. Traits considered were those for which EPD were available from the US National Sheep Improvement Program and included direct and maternal effects on 120-d weaning weight (WW and MM, respectively); yearling weight (YW); yearling fleece weight, fiber diameter, and staple length; and percent lamb crop (PLC), measured as the number of lambs born per 100 ewes lambing. A bioeconomic model was used to predict the effects of a change of 1 additive SD in EPD for each trait, holding all other traits constant at their mean, on animal performance, feed requirements, feed costs, and economic returns. Resulting economic weightings were then used to derive selection indexes. Indexes were derived separately for 3 prolificacy levels (1.41, 1.55, and 1.70 lambs/ewe lambing), 2 triplet survival levels (50 and 67%), 2 lamb pricing policies (with or without discounting of prices for heavy feeder lambs), and 3 forage cost scenarios (renting pasture, purchasing hay, or reducing flock size to accommodate increased nutrient requirements for production). Increasing PLC generally had the largest impact on profitability, although an increase in WW was equally important, with low feed costs and no discounting of prices for heavy feeder lambs. Increases in PLC were recommended at all 3 prolificacy levels, but with low triplet survival the value of increasing PLC eventually declined as the mean litter size increased to approximately 2.15 lambs/ewe lambing and above. Increasing YW (independent of WW) increased ewe maintenance costs and reduced profitability. Predicted changes in breeding values for WW and YW under index selection varied with lamb pricing policy and feed costs. With low feed costs or no discounts for heavy lambs, YW increased at a modest rate in association with increasing WW, but with high feed costs or discounting of heavy lambs, genetic trends in WW were reduced by approximately 50% to constrain increases in YW. Changes in EPD for MM or fleece traits generally had smaller effects on profitability than changes in PLC, WW, and YW. Two indexes designed to address current rangeland production conditions (low forage costs and discounting of heavy feeder lambs) or more intensive and integrated production with retained ownership and value-based marketing of lambs (higher forage costs and no discounting of heavy lambs) were anticipated to meet the needs of most Targhee producers.     

Evaluation of biological and economic efficiency of the All Heifer,No Cow beef production system using a system dynamics model based on 6 yr of demonstration herd data

Alternative management strategies with no cows and all heifers may improve biological and economic efficiency of beef production. The All Heifer, No Cow (AHNC) beef production system involves insemination of nulliparous heifers with female sex-selected semen (FSS) to produce primarily female calves that are early weaned at 3 mo of age. Dams are finished on a high concentrate diet and harvested before 30 mo of age. The objectives of this research were to: 1) build a dynamic model of an AHNC beef production system to quantify system biological and economic efficiency; 2) compare effects of utilizing FSS vs. conventional semen on biological and economic efficiency; 3) evaluate what-if scenarios to determine the effects on biological and economic efficiency of changing variables ±5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% from initial observed values; and 4) evaluate the effects on biological and economic efficiency of changing variables ±10% from initial observed values. A model was built over a 21-yr horizon using Stella Architect. Biological parameter values in the model were based on the 6 yr of data collected from the management of an AHNC demonstration herd. In the model animal, total digestible nutrients (TDN) intake, hot carcass weight (HCW), and age at harvest were randomized. Feed, animal, and carcass prices included in the model were based on 10 yr of historical U.S. price data. Key response variables were biological and economic efficiency (mean ± SD). Biological efficiency was defined as the ratio of output (kilograms of HCW produced) to input (lifetime kilograms of feed TDN consumed), and economic efficiency was measured using a benefit–cost ratio (BCR) and unit variable cost (UVC). Over 40 simulation runs, the predicted mean biological efficiency was 0.0714 ± 0.0008. Economic efficiency was 0.95 ± 0.02 and US $445.41 ± 0.06 for BCR and UVC, respectively. Biological and economic efficiency was improved in the conventional semen scenario; biological efficiency was 0.0738 ± 0.0008, and BCR and UVC were 0.99 ± 0.04 and US $407.24 ± 0.006, respectively. Under this parameterization and market conditions, the AHNC beef production system failed to achieve profitability under any scenario that was evaluated. However, this review did not account for the potential increased genetic benefit from a decreased generation interval and the reduction in feed energy in comparison to a conventional cow/calf system.     

临夏州畜牧科技扶贫在产业发展中 存在的主要问题及建议对策

科技扶贫是我国实施扶贫攻坚的一个重要战略措施,是解决贫困地区生产技术落后和技术人才极度匮乏现实状况的根本举措,是由救济式扶贫向依靠科学技术扶贫转变的重要标志。临夏州委、州政府始终坚持把产业扶贫作为重要抓手,全面实施村有主导产业、户有增收门路、劳动力有增收技能,大力培育特色富民增收产业。结合精准扶贫工作实际,针对畜牧科技扶贫工作中存在的主要问题,为今后产业扶贫工作取得明显成效,为现代畜牧业的发展,提出建议及对策。     

Estimation of the costs of mastitis, using National Animal Health Monitoring System and milk somatic cell count data

Data collected by the National Animal Health Monitoring System in Ohio for a 12-month period during 1986 and 1987 were used to determine the relative magnitude of costs associated with mastitis in the following categories: milk production loss, veterinary services, drugs, producer labor, and "other" factors. The cost of milk loss associated with mastitis that was reported by producers cooperating in the National Animal Health Monitoring System program was compared with estimates based on bulk tank somatic cell counts and individual cow milk somatic cell counts. Using producer-reported estimates, milk loss accounted for about one third of the total cost associated with mastitis. When estimates of milk loss were replaced by estimates based on bulk tank somatic cell counts, milk loss accounted for over 80% of the total cost of mastitis. Estimates of the cost of milk loss based on studies relating milk yield to somatic cell counts differed considerably. Consequently, it was unclear how to best estimate the relative magnitude of the milk loss component of mastitis costs.     

The cost of conserving livestock diversity? Incentive measures and conservation options for maintaining indigenous Pelón pigs in Yucatan,Mexico

In the Mexican state of Yucatan the Pelón pig breed has been identified as being endangered. The gradual disappearance of this indigenous breed that is able to survive well in an extreme environment and under low-input conditions undermines food and livestock security for Yucatan’s rural poor. This study uses contingent valuation to identify those backyard pig producers who require least compensation to conserve the Pelón breed. Understanding the conditions under which livestock keepers most committed to the use of the indigenous breed would be willing to participate in different conservation scenarios allows for a comparative analysis of alternate conservation schemes, in terms of cost and breed population growth. The findings suggest that establishing a community-based conservation scheme could be sufficient to ensure that the Pelón pig reaches a ‘not at risk’ extinction status. Alternatively, establishing open-nucleus breeding schemes would result in a higher effective population size, but at relatively greater cost. We conclude that for the specific case of the Pelón pig in Yucatan, Mexico, if effectively designed, the cost of conservation and sustainable use strategies may be little more than the cost of facilitating access to the animal genetic resource for those most reliant upon it.     

我国肉鸡生产区域比较优势分析

肉鸡产业是我国畜牧业重点发展产业之一,在各个地区之间发展水平存在着明显差异,通过利用定量分析方法对我国肉鸡生产的区域比较优势进行测算,能更好地掌握我国肉鸡生产区域比较优势的发展状况,从而来综合界定我国肉鸡养殖的生产成本优势区域.     

Turnover of Village Chickens Undermines Vaccine Coverage to Control HPAI H5N1

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) subtype H5N1 remains an enzootic disease of village chickens in Indonesia, posing ongoing risk at the animal–human interface. Previous modelling showed that the fast natural turnover of chicken populations might undermine herd immunity after vaccination, although actual details of how this effect applies to Indonesia's village chicken population have not been determined. We explored the turnover effect in Indonesia's scavenging and mixed populations of village chickens using an extended Leslie matrix model parameterized with data collected from village chicken flocks in Java region, Indonesia. Population dynamics were simulated for 208 weeks; the turnover effect was simulated for 16 weeks after vaccination in two ‘best case’ scenarios, where the whole population (scenario 1), or birds aged over 14 days (scenario 2), were vaccinated. We found that the scavenging and mixed populations have different productive traits. When steady‐state dynamics are reached, both populations are dominated by females (54.5%), and ‘growers’ and ‘chicks’ represent the most abundant age stages with 39% and 38% in the scavenging, and 60% and 25% in the mixed population, respectively. Simulations showed that the population turnover might reduce the herd immunity below the critical threshold that prevents the re‐emergence of HPAI H5N1 4–8 weeks (scavenging) and 6–9 weeks (mixed population) after vaccination in scenario 1, and 2–6 weeks (scavenging) and 4–7 weeks (mixed population) after vaccination in scenario 2. In conclusion, we found that Indonesia's village chicken population does not have a unique underlying population dynamic and therefore, different turnover effects on herd immunity may be expected after vaccination; nonetheless, our simulations carried out in best case scenarios highlight the limitations of current vaccine technologies to control HPAI H5N1. This suggests that the improvements and complementary strategies are necessary and must be explored.