Scientific evaluation of smallholder land use knowledge in Central Kenya

The following study was conducted to determine smallholders' land use management practices and agricultural indicators of soil quality within farmers' fields in Chuka and Gachoka divisions in Kenya's Central Highlands. Data on cropping practices and soil indicators were collected from farmers through face‐to‐face interviews and field examinations. Farmers characterised their fields into high and low fertility plots, after which soils were geo‐referenced and sampled at surface depth (0–20 cm) for subsequent physical and chemical analyses. Farmers' indicators for distinguishing productive and non‐productive fields included crop yield, crop performance and weed species. Soils that were characterised as fertile, had significantly higher chemical characteristics than the fields that were of poor quality. Fertile soils had significantly higher pH, total organic carbon, exchangeable cations and available nitrogen. Factor analysis identified four main factors that explained 76 per cent of the total variance in soil quality. The factors were connected with farmers' soil assessment indicators and main soil processes that influenced soil quality in Central Kenya. Soil fertility and crop management practices that were investigated indicated that farmers understood and consequently utilised spatial heterogeneity and temporal variability in soil quality status within their farms to maintain and enhance agricultural productivity. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Learning to reduce degradation on Swaziland's arable land: enhancing understandings of Striga asiatica

Maize production in Swaziland's middleveld is being increasingly threatened by the Striga asiatica weed (also called witchweed). It parasitises the maize crop to provide itself with water and nutrients, preventing the crop from growing properly. In this paper we examine the impacts of this bio‐indicator of land degradation on rural livelihoods, investigating how farmers and policy makers are responding to the problem. Our results show that farmers' ability to control weed infestations is determined by a number of environmental, social and political‐economic drivers and that national policies to reduce land degradation offer little assistance. Low‐technology methods employed by farmers are an important step in alleviating the problem, but farmers' understandings of why these methods work are limited and they often neglect to combine control strategies. At the local level, there is a need to support farmer‐to‐farmer learning and education programmes to broaden and deepen farmer knowledge about S. asiatica. At the national level a more supportive policy context is necessary that recognises weeds as an indicator of a more serious overall land degradation problem, and which uses broader criteria to determine what constitutes land degradation. Without this attention, the threat from S. asiatica could increase in both area and intensity, with profound effects on both food security and the sustainability of rural livelihoods. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

COMPARING FARMERS' PERCEPTION OF SOIL FERTILITY CHANGE WITH SOIL PROPERTIES AND CROP PERFORMANCE IN BESEKU,ETHIOPIA

Farmers' perceptions of soil fertility change were compared with observations on soil quality changes and crop performance in soils from a chronosequence representing a range of soil ages since conversion from forest to cropland (0 to 57 years). A majority of the farmers, 92 per cent, had observed a decline in soil fertility on their land. Farmers use crop yield, indicator plants, soil softness and soil colour to judge soil fertility. They identified 11 plants that they used to indicate high soil fertility and four plants that they used to indicate low soil fertility. There was a strong correlation (r = 0·96) between soil organic matter content (loss on ignition) and farmers' ranking of soil fertility based on colour and softness of soil samples from the chronosequence. The biotest experiment with maize showed an exponential decline in biomass production along the chronosequence, confirming the results of farmers' soil fertility ranking. In the biotest, total soil N predicted produced biomass well (r² = 0·95), whereas the relationship with soil available P (Olsen) was less obvious. Among the eight analysed plant nutrients in the maize leaves, N content was found to correlate best with biomass production (r² = 0·94). We conclude (i) that there is good agreement between farmers' knowledge and scientific indicators of soil fertility and (ii) that the major reason for declining soil fertility in Beseku is the decrease in N mineralization over time. Interventions should focus on supporting farmers to implement a diversified nutrient management strategy that can maintain or increase long‐term productivity of the soil. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil Quality Indicators Response to Land Use and Soil Management Systems in Northern Ethiopia's Catchment

Assessment of soil quality (SQ) indicators that detect soil degradation in different land use and soil management systems (LUSMS) is desirable to achieve sustainable management strategies. The LUSMS identified for evaluation included natural forest (LS1), plantation of protected area (LS2), grazed land (LS3), teff (Eragrostis tef)‐faba bean (Vicia faba) rotation (LS4), teff‐wheat (Triticum vulgare)/barley (Hordeum vulgare) rotation (LS5), teff mono‐cropping (LS6), maize (Zea mays) mono‐cropping (LS7), and uncultivated marginal land (LS8). The SQ indicators were significantly influenced (p ≤ 0·05) by the LUSMS. The first four principal components with eigenvalue > 1 explain about 88% of the SQ variability across the LUSMS. The final principal component chosen indicators that mainly influence SQ variability were organic carbon, total nitrogen, cation exchange capacity, total phosphorus, silt, bulk density, and iron. In this study, a higher SQ was found in LS1 followed by LS2, whereas a seriously degraded SQ was observed in LS8 followed by LS6. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Participatory soil and water conservation planning using an erosion mapping tool in the central highlands of Kenya

Despite several approaches that aimed at mobilising East African farmers to embrace soil and water conservation (SWC) activities, farmers hardly responded since they were seldom involved in the planning of SWC activities. Two tools that employ farmers' participation were developed and applied at Gikuuri catchment in Kenya. The first tool involved farmers to map soil erosion using their own indicators and determine the soil erosion status at catchment scale. This formed the basis upon which they undertook to plan for SWC measures at catchment scale. Farmers also predicted crop yield losses based on the soil erosion status. Farmers widely approved the soil erosion status map since their own indicators and perceptions were used. The second tool provided cash flow trends for a variety of SWC activities and farmer situations. Farmers can use land with a high, moderate or low erosion status and often have rather different socio‐economic settings. The net benefits over 5 yr for bench terraces, fanya juu terraces and grass strips were illustrated to assist farmers in making informed decisions on SWC adoption. The two tools increased awareness on the need for collective actions among farmers and showed fields that cause run‐on on downslope fields. The improved awareness of erosion problems and the related financial consequences increased farmers' willingness to share the investment costs for cut‐off drains. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nutrient losses from rain‐fed bench terraced cultivation systems in high rainfall areas of the mid‐hills of Nepal

Between the elevations of 1000 and 2000 m in the mid‐hills of Nepal, over 12 million people subsist on land‐holdings of less than 0·5 ha. These farmers have limited access to commercial inputs such as fertilisers and are reliant on organic manures for soil fertility maintenance. Participatory research was conducted with farmers on bari land (upper slope rain‐fed crop terraces) in the hill community of Landruk (bench terraces 0–5° slope, 3000–3500 mm annual rainfall, which aimed to develop soil and water management interventions that controlled erosion without resulting in high leaching, and so were effective in minimising total nutrient losses. Interventions tested were the control of water movement through diversion of run‐on and planting fodder grasses on terrace risers on bench terraces. The interventions were effective in reducing soil loss from the bari land in comparison with existing farmer practices, but no effect was observed on nutrient losses in solution form through runoff and leaching. Losses of NO₃‐N in leachate ranged from 17·3 to 99·7 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, but only 0·7 to 5·6 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in runoff. The overall nutrient balance suggests that the system is not sustainable. Fertility is heavily dependent on livestock inputs and if the current trends of declining livestock numbers due to labour constraints continue, further losses in productivity can be expected. However, farmers are interested in interventions that tie ecosystem services with productivity enhancement and farmers' priorities should be used as entry points for promoting interventions that are system compatible and harness niche opportunities. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Farmers' perception of environmental degradation and their adoption of improved management practices in Alxa,China

The environment and the natural resource base have been severely degraded in Alxa League, western Inner Mongolia, China, over the past half‐century. This study reports surveys that reveal farmers' perceptions of environmental degradation and their adoption of improved management practices in this poor and remote desert region. Surveys were made in villages that had been engaged in a large environmental rehabilitation and management project [Alxa League environmental rehabilitation and management project (ALERMP)] and those that had not. The survey results showed that farmers perceived environmental degradation in terms of increased frequency and severity of sandstorms, movement of sand dunes, deterioration of pasture quality and declines in groundwater depth and quality. Farmers had low adoption rates for improved management practices, ranging from zero to a maximum of 28·5 per cent for the most adopted practice. A Tobit model analysis showed that the education level of farmers, the availability of extension services and whether farmers had participated in ALERMP were highly significantly correlated with the farmers' perception of degradation. The farmers' adoption of improved management practices was found to be significantly correlated only with whether they had participated in ALERMP. This shows that specific extension activities of the type possible in large and well‐funded projects are required if farmers are to recognise degradation and adopt improved management practices. The promotion of farmer education and strengthening of extension services are recommended as the best policy strategies for improving environmental management in this region. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Influence of selected soil properties,soil management practices and socio‐economic variables on relative weed density in a hand hoe‐based conservation agriculture system

Weeds are problematic to the smallholder farmers, who practise conservation agriculture (CA) in sub‐Saharan Africa, owing to an apparent lack of appropriate weed management strategies. We investigated weed dynamics under the planting basin (PB) system (hand hoe‐based CA) to assist the design of appropriate weed management options. On‐farm experiments were conducted under semi‐arid conditions in Zimbabwe to determine the effects of 11 selected soil properties, four socio‐economic variables and two soil management practices on relative weed density. Weed counts were made according to species at 3, 6 and 9 weeks after crop emergence. Multivariate ordination techniques and a quadratic model, developed with partial least squares, showed that Richardia scabra increased with sand content in the soil. Density of R. scabra and Melinis repens also increased with topsoil potassium content. When ranked according to importance, relative weed density was most dependent on sand content followed by topsoil potassium, nitrate, clay and silt content, and training related to crop production. Soil physico‐chemical properties, therefore, had greater influence on relative weed density than socio‐economic variables and soil management practices. We concluded that variability in weed density under the PB system was not necessarily determined by tillage alone, but was also a consequence of soil properties and to a lesser extent of socio‐economic variables and soil management practices. Understanding soil properties and management practices, which determine weed variability, helps in the design of general weed management recommendations that can be used by smallholders, most of whom do not have access to field‐specific advice.     

三峡库区农户水土保持行为类型及其机理

[目的]分析三峡库区农户水土保持行为的类型、特点、机理和主要效果,为区域水土保持和生态环境建设决策提供依据。[方法]对三峡库区(重庆段)5个区县113户农户进行了问卷调查和重点访谈,运用调查数据分析库区农户水土保持行为类型及其机理。[结果]三峡库区农户水土保持行为主要分自觉自愿型和政策引导型两大类。自觉自愿型是农户创造性地适应环境、保护耕地,降低投入、增加收入,以农户耕地管理和保护性耕作行为为主,农户的水土保持需求形成农户水土保持动机,产生了开挖边沟背沟、挑沙面土、大横坡+小顺坡耕作、等高耕作、免耕、反坡挖地、作物间作套种、种植植物篱和药物除草等行为。其中,间作套种、开挖边沟背沟、大横坡+小顺坡耕作和挑沙面土4项耕作行为在库区推广较好。政策引导型行为是农户受国家水土保持政策引导而参与水土保持生态建设,是国家战略需求和农户实际需要的有机结合,可以细分为三种类型,一是劳务报酬类,农户参与坡改梯等水土保持工程建设并获得劳务报酬。二是经济补偿类,农户响应国家水土保持生态建设号召,采取退耕还林等行为并获得一定补偿。三是资金补贴类,农户在政府资金前补助或后补助情况下修建塘库、道路等水土保持设施。[结论]三峡库区农户水土保持经验丰富,各种水土保持行为均具有较好效果,值得在小流域治理等水土保持生态建设中推广。     

Degradation and abandonment of mechanized rain‐fed agricultural land in the Southern Gadarif region,Sudan: the local farmers' perception

In the Gadarif Region of Sudan, destruction of the natural vegetation for agricultural expansion is one of the major causes of the degradation of renewable resources and the environment. This study identifies and analyses the farmers' attitudes and perceptions towards agricultural land degradation and abandonment. The cross‐sectional data collected from ten key informants and 41 large‐scale farmers focussed on the degradation and abandonment of mechanized agricultural land. The results of the study show that the respondents are well aware that soil degradation is in various forms are taking place on their cultivated agricultural land. This is based on their perception and interpretation of indicators such as weed infestation, poor soil fertility and soil compaction. Continuous cropping, mono‐cropping, rainfall shortage and the use of inferior seeds are the main reasons of land degradation as indicated by farmers. The main measures acknowledged to maintain and improve land productivity are repeated soil ploughing, abandonment/fallow periods and crop rotation. The study adduces evidence of widespread land degradation. The mitigation measures followed by the farmers may though not be sufficient to restore the soil fertility. The application of appropriate chemical fertilizers, sound crop rotation and long fallow periods can be recommended. Any management and research intervention regarding the problem of land degradation should; however, be concerted with the farmers' knowledge. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

耕地流转胁迫下农户生计多元化选择与可持续性水平——基于重庆市合川区188户的调查数据

农户生计资源重组是在耕地流转胁迫下对经济机会的反馈响应。基于重庆市合川区川柠柠檬示范园188户耕地流转农户及其394块流转耕地地块的调查数据,分析了流转农户劳动力特征和流转耕地的数量、质量及耕作半径特征,进而剖析耕地流转后农户多元化生计选择策略,并基于可持续生计框架,从生计资本、生计策略和生计成果3方面构建农户生计可持续性评价指标体系,采用自然资本、物质资本、人力资本、金融资本、社会资本、生计多样化指数、收入多样化指数、非农化水平及家庭纯收入指标,对农户生计可持续性水平进行评价。结果表明：1）耕地流转致使农户自然资本严重减少,家庭生计结构由农业主导型向非农主导型转变,生计种类显著增加,趋于多元化。2）耕地流转后,农户生计资本总指数增加,且农户生计资本属性间及各类型农户间的增长率存在分异。耕地流转导致5大资本失调,生计资本耦合协调度降低。3）不同类型农户生计可持续水平在流转后得到不同程度的提升,提升强度从大到小表现为非农主导型农户>农业主导型农户>非农型农户>纯农型农户。总之,农户在家庭承包耕地流转的内部冲击下,生计资本得以重组,致使农户生计的分化与转型,而多元化生计有助于农户生计的可持续发展。     

Farmers' knowledge and perceptions of soil erosion and conservation measures in the Central Highlands,Kenya

A lack of appreciation of Kenyan farmers' knowledge and their perceptions of soil erosion and soil conservation measures was the reason for low adoption of recommended technologies. This research was carried out to identify the criteria that farmers used to distinguish farm‐types and to use these types to evaluate different knowledge levels and perceptions of soil erosion and existing soil and water conservation (SWC) measures in the Central Highlands of Kenya. Community meetings and semi‐structured household surveys were carried out in a small catchment, with 120 households. Results partly support the idea of using farmer‐developed criteria to distinguish among land managers with reference to a farm‐type classification. Criteria distinguishing three classes of land managers (good, moderate and poor) were significant with regard to the following land husbandry practices: use of hybrid or recycled seed and use of organic and/or inorganic fertilizers. Farmers were aware of on‐going soil erosion and of several erosion control measures. Whereas a majority of farmers preferred grass‐strips as a SWC measures, they did not recognize agroforestry as a form of SWC measure. Farmers perceived that SWC measures could successfully increase crop yields and soil‐water retention, and increase land value. In general, farmers did not perceive that SWC measures successfully prevented erosion phenomena, given the evidence of on‐site erosion indicators. They attributed the continued erosion to high rainfall, steep slopes, lack of maintenance and poorly designed SWC measures. They did not consider poor soil‐cover, up‐down tillage and tall trees to be the causes of erosion. Farmers faced several constraints in adopting SWC measures: lack of labour, tools, capital and know‐how to construct the measures. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Better land husbandry in Honduras: towards the new paradigm in conserving soil,water and productivity

Land shortages are forcing more smallholder farmers to cultivate tropical steeplands. Resulting accelerated soil erosion is being countered by the promotion of soil conservation (SC) technologies, such as cross‐slope barriers, which aim to reduce soil loss and preserve land productivity. However, farmer adoption rates tend to be low. This is often attributed to the farmers' conservatism or lack of education. Research in Honduras's steeplands demonstrates that farmers value SC, provided that it promotes agricultural production. Field research from 1995–98, involving farmed test plots on slopes greater than 35 per cent (19 degrees), demonstrates that at least one typical SC technology—live barriers of Vetiveria zizanioides (vetiver grass)—has little or no impact on maize yield. This means that farmers see little benefit from their investment in the SC method. They find that erratic rainfall, pests and diseases and a lack of economic resources are far greater threats to their livelihoods than soil erosion. Consequently, SC has a low priority. Keeping soil in place avoids major off‐farm disbenefits. However, the SC technique tested here made no discernible difference to slope foot sediment yields during the life of this study. In sum, a new approach is needed. Promoting ‘Better Land Husbandry’ strategies, which seek to combine farmers' concerns about productivity with conservationists' concerns about reducing soil erosion—often via cover‐management—seem to be the best way forward. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Participatory soil and water conservation planning using a financial analysis tool in the West Usambara highlands of Tanzania

Despite decades of soil and water conservation (SWC) efforts in Tanzania, the adoption of the recommended SWC measures by farmers is minimal. In the past, SWC plans did not incorporate farmers' knowledge, and the economics of SWC was not given much attention at the planning stage. This research evaluated the applicability of two tools for participatory soil erosion mapping using farmers' indicators of soil erosion and financial analysis of SWC measures at the planning stage. The two tools were evaluated in Kwalei catchment in the West Usambara highlands, Tanzania. The participatory soil erosion‐mapping tool uses farmers' indicators of soil erosion to identify, classify and map soil erosion at the catchment level. The financial analysis tool involves farmers in a stepwise analysis of the costs and benefits of SWC measures before the implementation. The erosion‐mapping tool increased farmers' awareness on the severity of soil erosion problems, and they realised the need for SWC plans at both field and catchment scales. With the financial analysis tool farmers participated in the cost and benefits analysis and were able to select SWC options that were feasible under their socio‐economic situation. The two tools were able to demonstrate that farmers' participation in SWC planning increases the acceptance of SWC measures because they solve problems that are perceived by themselves. The financial analysis tool demonstrated how farmers could make selection of SWC measures that are feasible under their biophysical and economic condition if they are informed about the costs and benefits. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil organic matter decline and compositional change associated with cereal cropping in southern Tanzania

The spatial analogue method and ¹³C analytical techniques were used to reveal medium‐ to long‐term changes in soil organic matter (SOM) in farmers' fields under maize in southern Tanzania. Aerial photography and detailed farmer interviews were used to relate land‐use history to declines in SOM concentration and changes in composition. The research attempted to measure the rate of SOM decline and the extent to which farmers' residue management practice was allowing cereal residues to contribute to SOM. The combination of research methods employed in this study proved to be highly complementary. Results indicate that native SOM decreased by on average 50 per cent; after 25 years of cultivation. Under current residue management with cereal residues mostly grazed and burnt there is only a relatively modest contribution from cereal residues to SOM. When cereal residues are retained in the field it is likely they will contribute significantly to SOM but they are much less likely to build SOM in the medium to long term. The paper concludes that in many situations it is probably best for farmers to allow the majority of the residues to be eaten by cattle in these systems rather than attempt to build SOM or risk nitrogen immobilization in cropped fields. The greater importance of inputs of high‐quality (e.g. legume) residues for nutrient supply in the short term is highlighted, in contrast to inputs of poor‐quality (e.g. cereal) residues in an attempt to build SOM in the longer term. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Management Effects on Soil Organic Carbon Stock in Mediterranean Open Rangelands—Treeless Grasslands

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is subject to relatively rapid changes. In grasslands soils, the management system influences these changes. Therefore, these soils play a crucial role in climate change mitigation. Current research has developed strategies and methodologies to help us understand their role as a carbon sink. In this study, the SOC and total nitrogen contents and stocks (SOC‐S) and their variation with depth were evaluated in annual crop rotations (cereal–fallow). Fifty soil profiles were sampled in the Los Pedroches Valley (southern Spain). This area consists of Mediterranean open rangelands—treeless grasslands with cereal–fallow rotation, under two management systems: long‐term (20 years) organic farming (OF) and conventional tillage (CT). The studied soils were Cambisols (CM), Leptosols (LP) and Luvisols (LV). The objective of this research was to determine any management system effects (OF vs CT) on SOC and total nitrogen contents and stocks and their variation with profile depth. It was observed that SOC concentration decreased with depth (Ah–Ap > Bw > C). The SOC concentration was higher in the top soil for all studied soils in OF compared with CT. The highest totals of SOC‐S were found in LV‐OF (66·01 Mg ha⁻¹) and the lowest in LP‐CT (21·33 Mg ha⁻¹). Significant differences (p < 0·05) between soils types and management practices were found in carbon stocks, increasing the SOC‐S in OF compared with that in CT in all studied soils; this increase was 75·25%, 85·73% and 234·88% for CM, LV and LP, respectively. The results indicated that management practices significantly influence SOC‐S in the Los Pedroches Valley and, consequently, OF in annual crop rotations (cereal–fallow) is an excellent alternative to CT that increases the SOC content in Mediterranean open rangelands—treeless grasslands environments. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A participatory soil quality assessment in Northern Ethiopia's Mai-Negus catchment

Local communities often have substantial knowledge related to trends in soil quality and the associated limiting factors. Despite this, soil quality (SQ) degradation is a critical problem in Ethiopia and there is little or insufficient scientific information documenting local community experience in assessing SQ. This paper presents experiences of local communities in diagnosis of SQ and assesses the contribution of local knowledge as a strategy for sustainable development decision making within the Mai-Negus catchment of northern Ethiopia. Participatory transect-walks, group discussions and field observation which complemented by household interview were used to acquire data. Farmers identified SQ indicators e.g., crop yield, soil depth, erosion and sedimentation as their basis of categorizing the soils into high, medium and low SQ. They were also able to identify severely degraded areas (hotspots) and underlying causes. Significant variations (P ≤ 0.05) were shown between the proportions of farmers used certain SQ indicator and those who didn't while categorizing SQ. Local farmers involved in this study demonstrated their capability to suggest appropriate land management solutions for specific problems. This study demonstrates the benefit of involving local farmers in both problem identification and solution development so that anti-degradation technologies can easily be implemented and adopted.