试论森林环境资源核算

环境资源核算是当前国际社会最关注的热门课题之一。作者指出了现行国民经济核算体系的缺陷, 论述了世界环境资源核算的研究现状及发展前景, 重点介绍了环境资源核算研究的指导思想、环境资源核算的新概念及其分类、价值和计算方法、环境产业问题等, 并对我国开展森林环境资源核算研究提出了几点建议。     

The “German model” of integrative multifunctional forest management—Analysing the emergence and political evolution of a forest management concept

Forest policy and management are subject to various and often conflicting demands, which internationally have led to distinct policy responses and related management paradigms. These range from a strong focus on commodity production complemented by economic rationalities – e.g. focusing on plantations – to community-based or social forestry approaches highlighting local participation and stakeholder engagement, to a focus on ecosystem services and conservation. A major challenge involves the potential orientation of the overall forest policy and management paradigm either towards integrating manifold demands more or less evenly across an area, or towards dividing the land base into forest areas with different management priorities. The specific reconciliation and integration of both sides of the spectrum have been at the centre of scientific and political discussion on forest policy and management for several decades.In this context, the “German model” of integrative and multifunctional forest management has received international attention. It is regarded as an example for integrating diverse (societal and ecological) demands into a timber-production-oriented management approach. At the same time, the model's primary focus on timber production has been criticised by some.In this paper, we analyse the political dimension of the German model by tracing the birth and evolution of the so-called LÖWE programme, a much noticed governmental forest management programme in the German state of Lower Saxony. LÖWE has frequently been presented as a particularly successful example of multifunctional forestry. We first assess the specific societal and political circumstances that led to the establishment of the programme 20 years ago. Subsequently, we assess its political function in forest policy debates about various demands on Lower Saxony's public forests. We show that the evolution of the programme can be interpreted in two distinct but non-exclusive ways. On the one hand, LÖWE was a strategic success story for the Forest Service because it aligned (and also appeased) conflicting demands in line with the changing political priorities. On the other hand, it also embodied a learning process towards environmental policy integration. By underlining LÖWE as an example of the German model of integrative multifunctional forest management, we reiterate the strategic importance of this model in the German context and also highlight future challenges and related research needs.     

MyLand: a web-based and meta-model decision support system framework for spatial and temporal evaluation of integrated land use

This study developed an integrated decision support system (DSS) to assist land managers in taking a long-term holistic approach to integrated land-use decisions. “MyLand” is a unique combination of existing methods and techniques: meta-modelling calibrated off-productivity surfaces for spatial application, a decision tree for selecting options, multiple land-use analysis, multiple outputs and a mapping interface deployed over the Web. The design provides visualisation of geospatial information and enables multiple stakeholders to contribute to a more collaborative land-use planning process. Techniques to solve forestry modelling challenges have been generalised and applied in modelling pastoral and forestry land-use types. Forestry yield modelling is accommodated by a two-stage approach of spatial modelling of a productivity index followed by meta-modelling output from forest stand growth models. Livestock farming is modelled using the property owner's estimates of livestock carrying capacity of land management units in a whole property stock reconciliation model. The environmental performance of the property is calculated from the land-use type and management regime. A case study is described to demonstrate the use of “MyLand” and results of user evaluation of the DSS are presented.     

Acceptable practices in Ontario's forests: Differences between the public and forestry professionals

We compare and contrast survey responses to statements about 1) environmental values, 2) agreement with forest management goals and approaches, 3) perceptions of risk, 4) trust in science and government, and 5) acceptability of forestry practices between the public and three groups of forestry professionals (government biologists, government foresters, and industry foresters) in Ontario. The survey emphasized issues surrounding forest vegetation management due to the contentious nature of herbicide use. Responses were gathered from a 140-question telephone survey administered from September and November 1994 to 1,500 members of the general public and 201 forestry professionals across the province. Forestry professionals tended to be less supportive of some environmental values and forest management goals, perceive everyday and forestry activities to be less risky, be more trusting of science and government, and be more accepting of forestry activities than the general public. Among the three groups of forestry professionals, industry foresters tended to be most different from the public, followed by government foresters, and government biologists. These differences reveal potential sources of conflict and miscommunication between the public and forest managers. Recognizing these differences can help improve communications with the public about forest management plans.     

Characterization of nonindustrial private forest owners and their influence on forest management aims and practices in Northern Spain

Explaining and predicting nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) owner land management based on social, economic, and environmental factors is an increasingly important issue in policy arenas and academic research on rural development and planning. This study empirically explores and assesses management behavior by NIPF owners by analyzing attributes of landowner profile (age, educational level, primary occupation, engagement in farming, membership of professional groups, training in forestry, availability of market information, and specific knowledge and use of production criteria for timber harvesting). With the aim of predicting outcomes, a multiple regression model was constructed to investigate and quantify the probabilities of and factors influencing the participation of owners in agricultural and forestry associations. In March 2004, 103 resident forest landowners were interviewed about their commitment to and involvement in land management during 1999–2003 in Mariña Oriental, a forest region of Galicia, Northern Spain. Results suggest that professional occupation, particularly farming background, is the main factor affecting, either directly or indirectly, the forest management behavior of NIPF owners in the area. In particular, our logistic regression model for landowner membership of professional groups explained 77.9% of the variability observed in the study population, which suggests that the agricultural background of NIPF owners and their expectations from forests, represented by their future intention to enlarge the forestland base, play an important role in membership. In the region, forestry could be a valuable economic activity but it is not considered as such today. Findings could be used as a guide for design, planning, and implementation of research and policy measures that allow NIPF landowners to promote sustainable forestry for rural development.     

The value of six key soil variables for incorporation into a South African forest site classification system

The intensive nature of management practices in the exotic monoculture plantations of South Africa requires reliable decision support systems. Recent socio-economic developments, the need for optimal forest productivity, as well as increasing awareness of broader ecosystem values and environmental risks, highlight the importance of a unified approach to forest site classification and evaluation. This paper highlights the value of specific soil characteristics and its application value for a range of silviculture and management aspects related to site-specific forestry. A limited set of six soil variables are proposed for ecological mapping of forest landscapes at high-resolution operational-level scales. The variables proposed are parent material, soil classification, effective soil depth, depth limiting material, topsoil organic matter and topsoil texture. Each variable is discussed in terms of its significance as well as relevance to plantation forestry in South Africa. Shortcomings in our knowledge base and research requirements are highlighted, and the format of incorporation into a national forest site classification system is proposed. This paper will contribute to unity of purpose and understanding of forest site classification and evaluation in South Africa, and will promote management frameworks and decision support systems with desired environmental, economic and social benefits.     

日本森林资源供求变动趋势和经营管理战略创新

丰富的森林资源促进了第2次世界大战结束后日本经济的恢复和高速发展。此后,林产品市场供求、生产经营和产业政策发生了重大变化。文中分析了日本森林资源和森林经营现状、木材供求和森林功能多样化的趋势,以及林业政策、经营管理和技术创新的动向,以期为理论研究和业务决策提供参考。日本在经济高速增长期过后,木材需求量减少,自给率维持低位。近年来,日本林木进入集中主伐利用期,社会对森林生态环保需求增大,森林经营面临着规模过小、国有林缺乏经营活力、年轻劳动力减少等问题。日本森林经营管理创新的重点包括提高科技贡献率、改革林业特别是国有林的生产经营体制、提升森林在生态与环境和经济减贫等多方面价值。目前,上述创新已经效果初现,也是今后日本林业改革发展的主要方向。     

Compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product management in natural tropical forests: Perspectives,challenges, and opportunities

Tropical forests could satisfy multiple demands for goods and services both for present and future generations. Yet integrated approaches to natural forest management remain elusive across the tropics. In this paper we examine one combination of uses: selective harvesting of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction. We analyze the current status of this combination and speculate on prospects and challenges regarding: (i) resource inventory, (ii) ecology and silviculture, (iii) conflict in the use of multipurpose tree species, (iv) wildlife conservation and use, (v) tenure, and (vi) product certification. Our conclusions remain preliminary due to the relative paucity of published studies and lessons learned on what has worked and what has not in the context of integrated management for timber and NTFPs. We propose at least three ways where further research is merited. One, in improving ‘opportunistic’ situations driven by selective timber harvesting that also enhance NTFP values. Two, to explicitly enhance both timber and NTFP values through targeted management interventions. Three, to explicitly assess biophysical, social, regulatory and institutional aspects so that combined benefits are maximized. Interventions for enhancing the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction must be scaled in relation to the size of the area being managed, applied timber harvesting intensities, and the dynamics of multi-actor, forest partnerships (e.g., between the private sector and local communities). In addition, training and education issues may have to be re-crafted with multiple-use management approaches inserted into tropical forestry curricula.     

Agroforestry systems of high nature and cultural value in Europe: provision of commercial goods and other ecosystem services

Land use systems that integrate woody vegetation with livestock and/or crops and are recognised for their biodiversity and cultural importance can be termed high nature and cultural value (HNCV) agroforestry. In this review, based on the literature and stakeholder knowledge, we describe the structure, components and management practices of ten contrasting HNCV agroforestry systems distributed across five European bioclimatic regions. We also compile and categorize the ecosystem services provided by these agroforestry systems, following the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services. HNCV agroforestry in Europe generally enhances biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services relative to conventional agriculture and forestry. These systems can reduce fire risk, compared to conventional forestry, and can increase carbon sequestration, moderate the microclimate, and reduce soil erosion and nutrient leaching compared to conventional agriculture. However, some of the evidence is location specific and a better geographical coverage is needed to generalize patterns at broader scales. Although some traditional practices and products have been abandoned, many of the studied systems continue to provide multiple woody and non-woody plant products and high-quality food from livestock and game. Some of the cultural value of these systems can also be captured through tourism and local events. However there remains a continual challenge for farmers, landowners and society to fully translate the positive social and environmental impacts of HNCV agroforestry into market prices for the products and services.     

Current pathways towards good forest governance for ecosystem services in the former Soviet republic Tajikistan

As one of the former Soviet republics, Tajikistan is facing a slow transition from a communist command-and-control system to a more market oriented, decentralized and participatory forestry. In the last 25 years, the country's forestry sector has undergone several reorganizations. In the process of a current reform, the overall aim of this study is to gain a broader understanding of the current state of forest sector in Tajikistan. Our specific objectives are a) to describe the current institutional network's complexity, (b) to analyze stakeholders' perceptions on the key challenges towards good forest governance, (c) and give recommendations to tackle the key challenges, so that important forest ecosystem services (ES) may be enhanced, thus, also contribute to the development of the sector. We elaborate a generic framework, which simplifies complex interaction of governance and forests ecosystem services. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through questionnaire-based interviews with stakeholders of the forestry sector. The results indicate that the forestry sector is still far from representing good forest governance, however the newly established structure seems to be a first step. Yet, challenges in establishing sound legal frameworks, decision-making transparency, and implementation enforcement must still be overcome. While it is too early and challenging to assess the impacts of forest governance on ES and vice versa, the survey respondents highlight the importance of provisioning services for the development of the forest sector. Given the post-Soviet background, almost all member countries developed along similar lines. Therefore, the study results are not only of significance for Tajikistan, but also countries with similar history and socio-economic context.     

Effects of presenting forest simulation results on the forest values and attitudes of forestry professionals and other forest users in Central Labrador

This research tested whether demonstration of the long term effect of different forest management scenarios in a large forested area changes people's forest values and attitudes. Forestry professionals and other forest users in Central Labrador were shown simulation results of three alternative forest management scenarios illustrating possible long term effects on various indicators. Forest values and attitudes towards forestry were measured before and after the presentation. Our conception of values and attitudes is based on the cognitive hierarchy model of human behaviour which states that values are more enduring and more difficult to change than attitudes. It was thus hypothesized that attitudes would change but not values and that change in forestry professionals would be less than in other forest users since foresters are trained to think about long-term effects and large-scale processes of forest management scenarios. We also hypothesized that a greater number of people would have an opinion on forest management after the presentation. All three hypotheses were partially supported by the results. The results indicated that some attitude change occurred, but that values also changed somewhat. Most of the significant changes occurred when persons with no clear opinion on several forest-related questions formed an opinion. Long-term, landscape simulation results provide valuable information and enhance understanding of both forestry professionals and other forest users. However, being provided the same information, the two groups learned different things. While forest users gained more confidence in the current forest management plan and were motivated to further participate, professionals learned more specific things. This reflects differences between technical and local knowledge.     

Tropical Forestry

An overview of the forestry sector in Costa Rica was undertaken to determine whether the existing management practices of timber resources hold the potential to meet the country's demands for timber in the immediate decades to come, and to identify changes that might be needed in the management of forested lands. To meet these goals, we examined the present status and potential future contribution of the two newest forest sectors: the management of natural forest and plantation forestry. Rcsults indicate that the present management of Costa Rica's timber resources does not hold the potential to meet the country's demands for timber for more than the next ten years without severe loss of its forests. Substantial progress is occurring, but at an insufficient rate. Moreover, despite the considerable headway made in conservation in recent years, the rate of deforestation remains high. A number of factors limit advancement in natural forest management and plantation forestry, both of which have the potential to deaccelerate deforestation. In natural forest management, constraints are the rate at which forests are being brought under management, lack of budgetary provisions for fiscal incentives to private owners who alone cannot be expected to bear the cost of benefits of natural forest management that are national or even global in their distribution, and the weak infrastructure, extension services and research support to meet management goals. In the case of plantation forestry, the capability of this sector to produce commercial timber is not known. Moreover, inadequate management and extension services together with the misuse of the incentive system by private owners is likely to limit the potential of plantations. Institutional constraints include outdated legal and bureaucratic framework, market interventions, absence of clear policy toward natural forest management and plantation forestry, poor investment in infrastructure, extension and research support, and inadequate interaction among various agencies responsible for the development of the forestry sector. Such institutional constraints have allowed the proliferation of disincentives against the development of a sustainable timber sector. If the Costa Rican government's objective is to encourage sustainable forestry, it must first clearly articulate the policy and then create the appropriate legal, economic and institutional framework for implementation of the policy. Costa Rica, with its enlightened public administration system, vast technical and scientific knowledge about its forest ecosystem and extensive assistance from international organizations, must succeed, otherwise prospects for sustainable forestry in thc less fortunate tropical countries would be bleak.     

Cross-Sectoral Policy Linkages and Environmental Accounting in Forestry

Abstract

It is important to analyze cross-sectoral policy linkages and to quantify their effects by using the system of integrated environmental and economic accounting in order to ensure effective integration of forestry into national development. This paper reviews relevant policy linkages in the forestry sector, policy applications of forestry accounts, and challenges to their implementation. It argues for the need to develop regional or local accounting methods providing social, environmental, and economic data to allow assessment of the combined impacts of different public policies. It emphasizes the urgency of strengthening the management capacity of public agencies in dealing with complex policy networks addressing sustainable and multifunctional forest management.     

新西兰林业经营见闻及思考

新西兰林业在发展中探索出一套商品林业、生态林业“分工”经营的模式，特别是集约经营人工林方面取得丰硕成果而成为世界林业发展的典型代表。作者就考察所得体会结合我省实际情况提出建议。     

Forest management educational needs in South African forestry companies

South Africa is a world leader in the forest products industry and this industry contributes significantly to the country's economy. Challenges to the industry's future include land reform, water use, global competition, regulations, outsourcing and privatisation (the decreased role of government in forest management). These issues impact forestry skills, jobs and education. As part of the Department of Forest and Wood Science's curriculum revision at Stellenbosch University, a survey was sent to forest industry representatives to better understand the transition in forestry and what is expected from upcoming forestry graduates, specifically in business and economic-related studies. Major issues that surfaced included skill shortages, timber supply constraints and land/legal issues. The most important skills lacking in future foresters were people and business management skills. The survey results confirm that, although forest managers still need a core technical toolbox, they are also required to address multiple issues and require a broader 'package' of skills.     

Determinants of access to forest products in southern Burkina Faso

There is an increasing understanding that forests and the forestry sector are key elements in poverty reduction strategies in Africa. However, issues of equity between various forest users are becoming a major challenge to environmental development, forest management and poverty reduction. This paper presents an analysis of household representatives' socio-economic determinants and other constraints on accessing forest products, based on data collected through a questionnaire survey of 1865 respondents in seven districts of the Sissili province, southern Burkina Faso. Three logistic regression models were developed to examine determinants of access to the forest for collecting fuelwood, grazing livestock and collecting non-timber forest products (NTFPs). The results showed that access to forest products is associated with individual characteristics. Age, ethnicity, occupation and sources of income were significant determinants of access to all types of forest products. Access to the forest for grazing livestock was further influenced by gender and household size, while access to NTFPs was influenced by gender, household size and education level of the respondents. The formal forest law that precludes grazing in the forest, and customary rules and regulations pertaining to land tenure, were reported to be serious constraints to forest access for women and migrant people. Understanding the factors influencing access to products from commonly-owned forest resources could form the basis for developing, modifying and targeting policy instruments that promote equitable access. Policies should particularly encourage the direct involvement of vulnerable and marginalized groups (women and migrants) in forest management activities.     

Challenges in the design of performance-based forestry regulations: Lessons from British Columbia

Advocates of regulatory reform have argued for performance-based regulation that focuses on the objectives being pursued rather than the means or process by which they are achieved. The great promise of performance-based approaches is that they are believed to provide a more cost-effective approach to achieving desired objectives. This article examines the challenges in designing performance-based regulatory approaches in forestry by analyzing the case of regulatory reform in British Columbia, Canada, in the 2000s. A key barrier to achieving a more performance-based regime includes the inherent challenge of identifying measurable objectives when the underlying causal mechanisms between forestry and environmental values are so poorly understood. The distinguishing feature of the new framework in British Columbia is not that it is performance-based, but that it provides greater flexibility to foresters in achieving policy goals through management planning. The design challenge is to find performance standards specific enough to be meaningful and enforceable but not so specific that they eliminate the very flexibility in means that performance-based regulation is trying to promote. In forestry in British Columbia, this challenge has proven sufficiently daunting that its new system of forest practices has proven to be far less performance-based than initially envisioned.     

Non-industrial private forest owners’ attitudes towards the operational environment of forestry — a multinominal logit model analysis

The aim of the present study was to relate the attitudes, characteristics and forest management decisions of private forest owners to concepts of strategic management, and by this means, to achieve support for the use of common strategic management approaches in forestry. Non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners’ forestry business units (BUs) were grouped into four strategic groups (Stars, Cash cows, Wildcats and Dogs), according to the McKinsey's matrix. This grouping was based on the forest owners’ attitudes towards the internal and external operational environments of forestry. Then, the groups were identified by means of a multinominal logit modeling approach that used forest-owner and forest-holding characteristics as explanatory variables. The differences in forestry behavior between the strategic groups were analyzed. The modeling results showed that forest-owner and forest-holding characteristics were in a logical relationship to the basic definitions of the used strategic groups. The behavior of the strategic groups was in accordance with strategies suggested in the tenets of strategic management. The results of this study are supportive of more extensive utilization of common strategic management approaches in forestry. However, the characteristics that make the forest different from other factors of production may require some modifications to be made to these approaches.     

Demand for non-timber forest products: Surveys of urban consumers and sellers in Switzerland

In recent years, worldwide socioeconomic, ecological, and cultural changes have led to a paradigm shift in forestry and forest management. Some years ago, most forest enterprises exclusively focused on wood production, whereas today, forest management is expected to be multifunctional and economically as well as socially and ecologically sustainable [Harrison, S., Herbohn, J., Niskanen, A., 2002. Non-industrial, smallholder, small-scale and family forestry: what's in a name? Small-scale Forest Economics. Management and Policy 1 (1), 1–11; Schmithuesen, F., 2004. Forest policy developments in changing societies — political trends and challenges to research. Towards the sustainable use of Europe's forests: Forest ecosystems and landscape research: Joensuu: European Forest Institute, Proc., vol. 49, pp. 87–99]. In this context, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as forest honey, mushrooms, or berries could gain importance as an additional source of income for the forestry sector. To assess the market potential of NTFPs in Switzerland, two corresponding surveys were conducted. A consumer survey (N = 897) conducted in six cities in Switzerland investigated the purchase of Swiss NTFPs, consumer preferences, and demand potentials. An additional survey of sellers of NTFPs (N = 105) looked at these aspects from a complementary perspective. The results showed that there is a high esteem and considerable demand potential for such products among urban consumers. Food products were mentioned most frequently. Both consumers and sellers considered quality and environmental friendliness the most important attributes of NTFPs. Structural and organizational innovations and considerable marketing efforts and sales promotion would be required to expand the market for Swiss NTFP, however. Our results indicate that certification of the products' origin, environmental performance, and quality could support such efforts and that recreational and ecological forest services have a synergetic potential for the marketing of NTFPs.     

20世纪中国乡村林业变迁初探

论述了20世纪中国乡村林种与树种变迁及其发展热点,探讨了各时期发展乡村林业的异同措施和变迁机理。