Effect of information provisioning on attitude toward surgical castration of male piglets and alternative strategies for avoiding boar taint

Pork consumers know little about boar taint and the methods used to avoid it. As such, relevant information is necessary to assist consumers to judge the acceptability of different strategies to avoid boar taint. The effect of basic (T1) or extensive (T2) written information or T2 with supplementary audio–visual information (AV) on the opinion concerning immunocastration (IC), raising entire male pigs (EM) and surgical castration with anaesthesia (SA) as compared to castration without anaesthesia (SC) was investigated in a student population. Overall, IC was significantly preferred over SC. The information condition influenced the preference for IC and EM as compared to SC. Participants exposed to AV were more positive to IC than participants exposed to T1 and T2, and more positive to EM than participants exposed to T2. The impact of information condition was not affected by gender, farming experience, knowledge about the boar taint issue or personal relevance of pig welfare. Potential effects of providing background information and media campaigns on public surveys ought to be considered. Supplementary audio–visual information increased the impact of information provisioning.     

Consumer attitudes towards castration of piglets and alternatives to surgical castration

From three in-depth focus group studies and an internet based study concerning consumers attitudes towards surgical castration of piglets and alternatives, it can be concluded that Norwegian consumers are content with the current practice of castration using local anaesthesia. They accept castration as a necessary means to prevent the risk of boar taint in meat and thereby secure meat quality. Even though castration using anaesthesia is not a perfect solution, it is considered sufficient, and the consumers do not ask for alternatives. Most consumers were sceptical of immunocastration. The scepticism was mainly based on the fear of residuals in meat and unknown long-term consequences for the consumers. On the other hand the confidence in Norwegian control authorities is considerable, and will probably contribute to the maintenance of purchase habits even if immunocastration is to be introduced in Norwegian pig production. Castration without anaesthesia was characterized as completely unacceptable.     

Behavior of piglets after castration with or without carbon dioxide anesthesia

Surgical castration of male piglets without anesthesia is a routine management practice conducted on commercial pig farms. For animal welfare reasons, it would be beneficial to develop methods of practical pain relief. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of providing CO? anesthesia before castration on the behavior of piglets for up to 8 d after castration in comparison with piglets castrated without anesthesia. In 3 successive replicates, the behavior of 186 male piglets castrated with (n = 95) or without (n = 91) anesthesia was observed for up to 8 d after castration. All piglets in a given replicate were castrated on the same day, before 8 d of age. Behavioral observations were carried out in accordance with a continuous focal sampling procedure that began immediately after castration and continued for a period of 1 wk. Barrows anesthetized with CO? before castration displayed more interactive behaviors during the overall observation period than the other barrows (P = 0.0412), which may indicate better welfare. Assessing all observation periods separately, differences in activity at the udder, lying, walking, and interactive behaviors appeared to support the beneficial effect of providing CO? anesthesia before castration. However, these differences varied over time between treatment groups. The most important conclusion was that piglets castrated with or without CO? anesthesia displayed behaviors indicative of pain and discomfort for up to 6 d after castration. Therefore, additional analgesia may be necessary to eliminate the long-term pain caused by castration even in piglets anesthetized with CO? before castration.     

Behavior of piglets during castration with and without local anesthesia]

According to the German welfare act of 1998 (Art.5(3)1.), surgical castration of up to 4 wk old pigs does not require anaesthesia. However, the application of a local anaesthesia is discussed in the context of pain related responses to this procedure. In these experiments, effects of different methods of application on the behaviour of piglets during castration are evaluated as a contribution to the welfare assessment of this procedure. A total of 36 piglets between 10 and 14 days of age were castrated with and without a local anaesthesia. Local anaesthesia with Lidocaine 2% was applied in two ways: a) via intratesticular (i.t.) injection and b) intratesticular injection combined with subcutaneous (s.c.) infiltration of the anaesthetic into the tissue around the spermatic cord. The assessment of pain was performed on the basis of vocalisations and resistance movements of the animals during the procedure. Local anaesthesia resulted in a reduction of the relative proportion of resistance movements from the entire period of fixation (castration with i.t. anaesthesia 12.73%, with i.t. and s.c. anaesthesia 14.50% or without a local anaesthesia 18.96%; P < 0.05). In particular, local anaesthesia resulted in a reduction of resistance movements during the cutting of the spermatic cord. The response of piglets to additional skin stimulation of the scrotum was not different between the three treatments.     

Inhalation anaesthesia for castration of newborn piglets: experiences with isoflurane and isoflurane/NO

The aim of this study was to evaluate the inhalation anaesthesia with isoflurane and isoflurane/N2O by mask induction for routine castration of piglets under 14 days of age. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Eighty-five male piglets aged between 4 and 12 days were used in a matched pair test. Two piglets of the same litter with the same weight were selected. One was castrated with, the other without anaesthesia. Induction was performed with either isoflurane (group ISO) or isoflurane/nitrous oxide (group ISO/N2O) in oxygen through a modified bain-breathing system. Induction time was 90 and 60 s for group ISO and group ISO/N2O, respectively. The disappearance of the palpebral reflex was recorded. The reaction of the piglets during castration was judged according to a scoring system separately for both testicles during skin incision and dissection of the spermatic cord. The scores were added and mean values were calculated. Total anaesthesia time, castration time and quality of recovery was recorded. Blood was collected from all piglets immediately after castration for measurement of ACTH and beta-endorphin values. Statistical analysis were performed by the Kruskal-Wallis test for nonparametric data and one-way anova (NCSS 2000, Kaysville, UT, USA). RESULTS: Induction of anaesthesia proved to be smooth in all cases. The palpebral reflex disappeared after 36.5 s in group ISO/N2O versus 51 s in group ISO. Mean castration scores were 0.6 in group ISO and 0 in group ISO/N2O, whereas 7.7 in piglets with no anaesthesia. These scores were significantly different. Mean anaesthesia time was 128 s (30-390) for group ISO and 123 s (70-220) for group ISO/N2O. No deaths occurred. The differences in the levels of ACTH and beta-endorphins in the blood plasma in the different groups showed no statistical difference. DISCUSSION: This study demonstrates that isoflurane or isoflurane/N2O anaesthesia by mask induction proves to be a safe, short and reliable method in piglets undergoing castration. Reaction to the castration procedure were significantly reduced. Stress hormone values were not different between the groups because of a large individual difference.     

Pre‐emptive meloxicam for postoperative analgesia in piglets undergoing surgical castration

ObjectiveTo investigate the effect of preoperative meloxicam administration on postoperative stress and pain induced by surgical castration in piglets.Study designProspective, blinded, randomized clinical trial.AnimalsOne hundred and eighty male piglets of <1 week of age.MethodsCastration was performed on 150 piglets which had received either an intramuscular injection of 0.4 mg kg^?1 meloxicam or a placebo 10–30 minutes before the procedure. Blood cortisol and ACTH concentrations were determined at 30 minutes post–castration and haptoglobin was measured at 24 hours post–castration. Presence or absence of foreleg movements, hind leg movements, urine or faeces emission, tremors or other body movements were recorded during the castration procedure. Scores for presence or absence of prostration, tremors, tail movements and isolation were recorded at 30 minutes, and at 1, 2, 4 and 24 hours post–castration and combined in a global behaviour score (GBS). Blood samples were taken from a further 30 piglets which did not undergo castration.ResultsMean blood cortisol and ACTH concentrations at 30 minutes post–castration were both significantly lower in the meloxicam group than in the placebo group (p ≤ 0.01). The mean haptoglobin concentration at 24 hours was not significantly reduced (p = 0.178). The distribution of the GBS during castration was similar in both groups. There were significant differences in the GBS after castration at both 2 and 4 hours post–castration with a greater proportion of piglets in the meloxicam group showing no behavioural alterations (82.7%versus 68.0% at both time points). The score distribution was similar in both groups at 30 minutes, 1 and 24 hours after castration.Conclusion and clinical relevanceThis study suggests that pre–emptive administration of meloxicam is able to produce some postoperative analgesia after surgical castration of young piglets.     

Effect of analgesics on the castration of male piglets

According to the current German animal welfare law, male piglets may be surgical castrated without anaesthesia up to four weeks of life. This surgical procedure is painful during and also after the operation, for newborn animals as well as for adults. This study was aimed to investigate the impact of preoperative application of analgesics (Meloxicam) on the postoperative castration - pain of four to six days old male piglets. In this investigation all animals were randomly distributed in three groups:the first one was only immobilized but had no surgery, the second one was castrated without analgesics, and the third group was castrated after application of Meloxicam. Blood samples were taken immediately before immobilization, castration or application of the analgesic as well as one, four and 28 hours afterwards to determine Cortisol-concentration in the blood serum and, via this stress-marker, to indirectly evaluate the postoperative und possible intraoperative castration-pain. As a result all piglets castrated without preoperative application of Meloxicam showed significantly increased Cortisol-concentration one and four hours after castration. In contrast, piglets castrated with analgesics resulted in no significant increase during the entire experiment.     

Comparison of intratesticular injection of zinc gluconate versus surgical castration to sterilize male dogs

OBJECTIVE: To compare castration of dogs by use of intratesticular injection of zinc gluconate with traditional surgical procedures in terms of acceptance by pet owners, ease of use, and short-term outcomes on Isabela Island of the Galápagos Islands. ANIMALS: 161 privately owned male dogs admitted to a neuter program. PROCEDURES: Medical records of male dogs neutered during a 4-week animal control campaign were reviewed to collect information regarding signalment, method of castration, complication rate, and treatment outcomes. RESULTS: Of the 161 dogs admitted for castration, 58 were surgically castrated and 103 were treated with zinc gluconate. Dogs were returned to their owners for observation following castration. Wound dehiscence occurred in 2 skin incisions, representing 3.4% of the 58 dogs that underwent bilateral orchiectomy. Necrotizing zinc-gluconate injection-site reactions occurred in 4 dogs receiving injection volumes near the maximum label dose (0.8 to 1.0 mL), representing 3.9% of the zinc-gluconate procedures. Surgical wound complications were treated by superficial wound debridement and resuturing, in contrast to zinc-gluconate injection-site reactions, which all required orchiectomy and extensive surgical debridement, including scrotal ablation in 2 dogs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Low cost, ease of use, and cultural acceptance of a castration technique that does not require removal of the testes make zinc gluconate a valuable option for large-scale use in dogs, particularly in remote locations lacking sophisticated clinical facilities or skilled surgeons and staff. Further investigation is needed to identify risk factors in dogs for adverse reactions to zinc gluconate and to develop strategies for avoidance.     

Evaluation of carbon dioxide anaesthesia for the castration of male suckling piglets by stress hormone concentrations, behaviour and clinical factors

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of an anaesthesia using 70% carbon dioxide and 30% oxygen on endocrine stress reaction, behaviour and clinical parameters of male suckling piglets during castration. One hundred and seventy one male piglets, three to five days of age, were allocated to two experiments. They were assigned either to the procedures control handling, control castration, handling under anaesthesia or castration under anaesthesia in each experiment. In Experiment 1, adrenaline and noradrenaline plasma concentrations were measured in blood samples taken before (-15 min) and after (immediately, 2 min) handling/castration. In Experiment 2, behavioural observations and clinical parameters such as heart and respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, reflexes and recovery time were assessed at several sampling times. Measurement of adrenaline and noradrenaline concentrations revealed an increase in all groups after handling/castration (p < 0.0167), but higher concentrations were seen in the anaesthetized groups (25 to 93 times) than in control groups (two to four times). The excessive endocrine reaction suggests that carbon dioxide inhalation causes a more stressful situation in piglets compared to castration without anaesthesia. Behavioural abnormalities, significant decreases in the heart rate, the respiratory rate and the oxygen saturation (p < or = 0.001) including a cardiac arrhythmia (extrasystoles) underline the impression that CO2 inhalation anaesthesia negatively affects animal welfare. Based on the results of this study, this anaesthetic method is unsuitable to reduce stress induced by castration. Further research on alternatives is necessary to ensure the well-being of the piglets during castration.     

Alternatives for castration of suckling piglets, determination of catecholamines and wound healing after castration of suckling piglets at different points of time

According to the applicable animal welfare legislation, the surgical castration of pigs is allowed up until the age of 4 weeks, without anaesthesia. According to the european guideline (2001/93/EG) it is only permitted in the first week after birth. The investigation should show, whether the castration of young piglets takes a milder course and to what extent stress reactions occur in different age groups. The healing process of castration wounds in piglets that were castrated at the age of four days progressed more rapidly and with less complications than those piglets that were castrated at 28 days of age. The catecholamine levels in younger piglets rose significantly after the operation, while these levels virtually stayed the same in piglets castrated at 28 days. As alternatives to castration without anaesthesia, several methods are in discussion: (1) Castration under general anaesthesia can only be practiced by a veterinary surgeon. The sole use of Azaperon and Ketamine has insufficient pain sedating effect. Isofluran anaesthesia is apparatively extravagant. (2) CO2-Anaesthesia in piglets leads to high strain. (3) Castration under local anaesthesia must be practiced by a veterinary surgeon. The application and the pain after the castration are not taken into consideration. (4) Jung boar fattening up until the slaughtering weight of 80 kg is not transformable, because of boar taste. (5) The breeding of slaughter pigs with little boar taint is not yet transformable. (6) Sperm sexing is not and will not, in the near future, be mature for practice. (7) Immunocastration is an active immunisation against GnRH. The immunological elimination of GnRH suppresses the development of sex hormones, such as testosterone, as well as the substance responsible for boar taint, Androstenone. To consider is the acceptance of the consumer. The preparation has the same effect in humans as it has in swine. "Self injections" have the same effect in humans as it has in swine. "Self injections" are therefore risky.     

Changes in the concentration of noradrenaline and adrenaline before and after castration of piglets with and without isoflurane anesthesia

Since the amendment of the animal welfare law in Germany in April 2006, castration of piglets without anesthesia is only allowed in the first seven days of life. However, neonates are capable of feeling pain and react more sensitive to pain than adults. Accordingly we expect that castration without anesthesia will be unaccepted in Germany in the future as castration without anesthesia will be forbidden in Switzerland from 2009 on. Denmark and The Netherlands strive for an embargo of the castration without anesthesia and Norway is already asking for an elimination of pain during castration. In Switzerland castration under isoflurane-anesthesia is considered to be a good alternative for the castration without anesthesia. Whether isoflurane-anesthesia is able to reduce stress caused by castration adequately or anesthesia, especially anesthetization that often provokes defensive reaction, is stress for the animal itself was tested in the following investigation. To get an objective statement about the stress of the animals, concentrations of epinephrine and norepinephrine were detected before and immediately after castration/fixation with or without anesthesia. Five day old, healthy animals were divided into four groups. Animals of group A (n = 10) were only fixed without anesthesia, animals of group B (n = 10) were fixed and castrated without anesthesia. In group C (n = 10) the animals were only fixed under anesthesia and the animals of group D (n = 11) were fixed and castrated under anesthesia. Norepinephrine-concentrations and epinephrine-concentrations did rise significantly in all piglets handled without anesthesia (group A and B) independently if castrated or only handled. The values of these animals were significantly higher than the values of the anesthetized animals after fixation/castration (group C and D). In contrast the norepinephrine-concentrations and the epinephrine-concentrations of all anesthetized animals (group C and D) were significantly lower after castration than the concentrations before castration. The catecholamine peak did not differ significantly between the groups of anesthetized animals. The significant increase of the catecholamines of the non-anesthetized animals can be explained by the stress caused by fixation and/or castration without anesthesia. Because of the anesthesia the catecholamine-concentration was reduced considerably during the fixation and/or castration. The results show that fixation and/or castration under anesthesia causes no stress for the piglets.     

Effects of meloxicam and flunixin on pain, stress and discomfort in male piglets during and after surgical castration

Surgical castration of young male piglets is now a generally accepted cause of serious distress and impairment of animal welfare. Awareness of this problem has created the moral commitment to seek for practical and more humane alternatives. As one possible alternative, the application of analgesics has been installed in Germany as an interim solution by the QS system, thus mandatory for the majority of German pig producers.Two analgesics have been authorised for this purpose. Both have been shown a significant positive impact on cortisol levels if administered pre-operatively. However, their effects on pain, stress and discomfort during castration, and on the post-castration period are conflicting. Thus, the aim of the present study was to compare the effects of Meloxicam and Flunixin on cortisol levels, behavioural indices, vocalisation, and wound healing of surgical castrated piglets in the field. There was no difference in vocalisation during castration in analgesic treated and untreated piglets. Piglets castrated under analgesia still had significantly elevated serum cortisol levels 30 min post castration, when compared to the sham castrated group. Both analgesics led to a significant impairment of behavioural indices and wound healing. It is concluded that analgesics can improve the welfare of piglets during the first part of the post-castration period. However, the benefits may be considered small and may not meet the requirements of the EU. Hence it is of high importance to prevent the interim practice of surgical castration of male piglets under analgesics from becoming implemented as a permanent condition in pig production.     

一种新型伤口处理剂对仔猪去势伤口处理的效果实证

在猪场中,正确的伤口处理对于伤口的恢复具有重要的意义。为了研究新型伤口处理剂对仔猪去势伤口的效果,特选取5～7日龄533头公仔猪,分为两组。试验组利用常规碘酊消毒去势后喷洒新型伤口处理剂,对照组则按常规操作单纯碘酊消毒。而后分别记录每天伤口恢复情况以及去势后15 d内表现关节肿的去势公仔猪比例。结果表明:新型伤口处理剂可以减少伤口出血,促进去势伤口的愈合,减少细菌通过伤口感染猪只的几率。     

The efficacy of local anaesthetics administered prior to castration of male suckling piglets

Objective of this study was to examine the efficacy of various local anaesthetics (Procaine Hydrochloride, Procaine Hydrochloride + Epinephrin, Lidocaine Hydrochloride) used in castration of four to six day old male piglets. Animals of the control groups (I-IV) were treated analogous to the castration groups (V-IX) but not castrated. In groups I and V 15 minutes prior to castration/fixation the piglets were fixed as for injection but not medicated. The injection volume was standardised to 0.5 ml per testes. Local anaesthetics were applicated intratesticularly in five groups and intrascrotarly in two groups. Blood samples were taken shortly before and one, four and 24 hours after castration/fixation. The serum cortisol level was analysed to determine pain induced neuroendocrine stress reaction. To proof the tissue tolerance creatinkinase-(CK) and aspartataminotransferase-(AST) concentration were analysed. One, seven and 14 days after castration the healing process were evaluated by a wound score. Groups I to IV did not show any increase of the serum cortisol level. Contrary one hour after castration the average cortisol concentration of castration groups (V-IX) rose significantly. Cortisol concentration of the medicated castration groups (VI-IX) showed a comparable or even higher cortisol level as the not medicated control group (V). Determination of CK and AST indicated no tissue damage of the application of the local anaesthetics. The administration of local anaesthetics prior to the castration did not have any effect on the wound healing process. The results of this study lead to the conclusion that injection of local anaesthetics show a good tissue tolerance but the call for reduction of the castration pain by presurgical injection of Procaine Hydrochloride or Lidocaine Hydrochloride is not justified.     

Effect of isoflurane inhalation anesthesia on postoperative pain due to castration of piglets

Since April 2006 piglets in Germany can only be castrated without anesthesia in the first 7 days of life. However, a castration is a painful experience even for an animal of this young age. Whether the castration under isoflurane-anesthesia is a reasonable alternative to castration without anesthesia was tested in the following investigation at 206 4 to 6 day old piglets.The serum-cortisol-concentration was chosen as the parameter for the pain caused by castration. A part of the animals was castrated without anesthesia (group II, n = 42) or with anesthesia (group IV, n = 41). Additionally Meloxicam, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, was applicated to piglets castrated with anesthesia (group V, n = 41). For control another part of the animals were only handled without (group I, n = 41) or with anesthesia (group III, n = 41), but they were not castrated. Cortisol-concentration prior to castration was compared to the concentration 0.5, 1,4 and 24 hours after castration. In addition cortisol was compared between groups at all points of time. Cortisol did rise significantly in castrated animals with animals with or without anesthesia than in animals of the non-castrated control groups. Cortisol after castration was significantly lower in piglets with an application of Meloxicam prior to castration. The pain caused by castration is an explanation for the differences in cortisol-concentration between castrated and not-castrated animals. Regarding those results, we assume that castration with isoflurane-anesthesia does not fulfil the demand for reducing pain after castration compared to castrating piglets without anesthesia.     

Topical anaesthesia alleviates short-term pain of castration and tail docking in lambs

Objective To investigate the effect of a topical anaesthetic formulation on pain alleviation, wound healing and systemic levels of local anaesthetic actives in lambs undergoing castration and tail docking. Design Three placebo-controlled and/or randomised experiments were conducted using three groups of Merino lambs (n = 62, 68 and 19) undergoing routine castration and tail docking. Procedure Surgical castration, with either surgical or hot-iron tail docking, was performed with and without the application of topical anaesthetic (Tri-Solfen®) or placebo. The effects of this procedure were compared with those of rubber ring castration and tail docking, and of the handled but unmarked controls. Wound pain was assessed using calibrated Von-Frey monofilaments over a 4-h period, pain-related behaviour was assessed over 5 h, wound healing was assessed at 14 and 28 days, and the plasma levels of lignocaine and bupivacaine were determined. Results Rapid and up to 4 h primary hyperalgesia developed following surgical castration and tail docking in the untreated and placebo-treated lambs. It was absent in the castration wounds, and significantly reduced in the tail-docking wounds, of the treated lambs. Hot-iron docking was associated with mild and transient secondary hyperalgesia, which was abolished by the topical anaesthesia. There was a significant reduction in pain-related behaviours in treated lambs, which were not significantly different in their behaviour to the sham-operation handled controls. Plasma lignocaine and bupivacaine levels were below the toxic thresholds in all tested lambs. Conclusion Topical anaesthesia alleviates wound pain and significantly reduces pain-related behaviours in lambs undergoing surgical castration plus surgical or hot-iron tail docking, without a negative effect on wound healing or a risk of systemic toxicity.     

An investigation of the effects of intratesticular alfaxalone and lidocaine during castration in piglets

Objective

To determine whether intratesticular injection of an alfaxalone–lidocaine combination can induce anesthesia and provide a rapid recovery in piglets undergoing surgical castration.

Neopterin and biopterin as biomarkers of immune system activation associated with castration in piglets

Recent reports have shown that stressful situations may affect the production of unconjugated pterins (neopterin and biopterin). The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of castration on neopterin and biopterin plasma concentrations in piglets, using 2 groups of 12 piglets allocated to castrated and uncastrated (control) groups. Pterin concentrations were determined by HPLC with fluorescence detection. Blood samples were also analzyed for leukocyte profiles and plasma cortisol concentrations. A time × treatment interaction (P < 0.05) was detected for neopterin concentrations, such that neopterin was greater (P < 0.01) at 1 h after surgery in castrated piglets compared with precastration concentrations, and neopterin was greater (P = 0.05) in castrated than in control piglets at 1 h. Castration had no effect on biopterin concentration (P > 0.1). Time effects (P < 0.05) for neutrophil and lymphocyte concentrations and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios were found. A time × treatment interaction (P < 0.01) was detected for plasma cortisol concentrations, such that cortisol was greater (P < 0.01) at 1 and 24 h after surgery in castrated piglets compared with precastration concentrations and was greater (P < 0.01) in castrated than in control piglets at 1 and 24 h. This study showed that castration activated the immune system of piglets as demonstrated by an increase in plasma neopterin concentrations.