Growing vegetables in developing countries for local urban populations and export markets: problems confronting small-scale producers

Vegetables attract high applications of pesticides, and farmers in developing countries use many acutely toxic insecticides to control pests on these crops. With the liberalisation of agricultural markets in developing countries, the number of small-scale farmers growing vegetables for both domestic and export markets is increasing. Demand for supplies of year-round and exotic fruit and vegetables has grown in industrialised countries, but with rising quality standards and traceability requirements it is difficult for small-scale farmers to benefit from this lucrative non-traditional agricultural export trade. The demand is high for vegetables in the expanding cities in developing countries, and farmers in peri-urban areas, or rural areas with good access to the cities, are in a position to find a growing market for their produce. Poor storage facilities will often mean that farmers are forced to sell at peak times when prices are low. Farmers rarely have access to training in pesticide use, and have only limited or no access to advice on the complicated management of pesticides. The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN is concerned about high levels of poor quality and adulterated pesticides on sale in developing countries. Surveys repeatedly show that without training, farmers are unable to make good crop decisions: recognition of pests and their predators is generally low, leading to decisions to spray to kill any insect; knowledge of product selection, application rates and timing is poor; different products are often combined in the belief that the effect will be greater; re-entry periods after spraying and essential harvest intervals are not known; and without knowledge of alternatives, farmers will often assume that the only solution to pest problems is to spray more frequently. From a consumer's point of view, few developing countries are able to monitor pesticide residues, particularly for produce grown for home consumption: most countries do not have laboratories for even simple residue testing. Changes in European Maximum Residue Limits means that export crops will be rejected if they contain residues at the Limit of Detection of pesticides not registered in Europe. Season-long field level training in Integrated Pest Management can help farmers to become better decision-makers, and to greatly reduce pesticide use while reducing risks to their own health and environment, producing safer products for consumers, maintaining yields, and increasing incomes.     

Seed degeneration in potato: the need for an integrated seed health strategy to mitigate the problem in developing countries

Seed potato degeneration, the reduction in yield or quality caused by an accumulation of pathogens and pests in planting material due to successive cycles of vegetative propagation, has been a long‐standing production challenge for potato growers around the world. In developed countries this problem has been overcome by general access to and frequent use of seed, produced by specialized growers, that has been certified to have pathogen and pest incidence below established thresholds, often referred to as certified seed. The success of certified seed in developed countries has concentrated the research and development agenda on the establishment of similar systems in developing countries. Despite these efforts, certified seed has had little penetration into the informal seed systems currently in place in most developing countries. Small‐scale farmers in these countries continue to plant seed tubers acquired through the informal seed system, i.e. produced on‐farm or acquired from neighbours or local markets. Informal seed tubers frequently have poor health status, leading to significant reductions in yield and/or market value. This review emphasizes the need to refocus management efforts in developing countries on improving the health status of seed tubers in the informal system by integrating disease resistance and on‐farm management tools with strategic seed replacement. This ‘integrated seed health strategy’ can also prolong the good health status of plants derived from certified seed, which would otherwise be diminished due to potential rapid infection from neighbouring fields. Knowledge gaps, development challenges and impacts of this integrated seed health strategy are discussed.     

发达国家与发展中国家碳排放比较及对中国的启示

采用IPCC法计算了中国、印度、美国、德国2001-2009年的化石能源碳排放额度。研究表明:(1)研究时段内中国和印度能源消费碳排放总量大幅增长,美国趋于稳定,德国下降趋势明显;(2)2009年,中国的人均碳排放量为1.59tC/人,虽高于印度的0.42tC/cap,但远低于德国的3.61tC/cap,更低于美国的5.93tC/cap。(3)中、印、美、德四国中,德国化石能源消费结构最优,美国次之,印度第三,中国最差,主要表现为煤炭消费比重大,天然气比重低。中国能源消费碳排放总量增长趋势在短期内难以逆转。据此提出了中国能源结构调整建议。     

发达国家和发展中国家生态补偿机制比较分析

生态补偿是处理环境保护和经济发展之间的矛盾、保障环境保护领域的社会公平的重要手段。通过比较研究发现,发达国家的生态补偿机制基于完善公共财政体系,直接以降低保护区的经济活动强度为导向;发展中国家的生态补偿机制则更倾向于通过自然资源的可持续开发来补偿保护地的发展机会损失。这两类生态补偿机制在实际应用中都存在一定的局限性。研究认为,我国应当在借鉴发达国家和发展中国家经验的基础上,以降低保护地经济活动强度为导向,结合我国的城市化进程,建立适合我国国情的生态补偿机制。     

History of IPM in California pears—50 years of pesticide use and the transition to biologically intensive IPM

During the 1960s, the California pear industry, on a per acre basis, was among the heaviest users of pesticides. Each season, multiple sprays of up to 14 active ingredients (chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates and carbamates) were typically applied for control of insects and mites. The cost of control escalated while damage from arthropod pests increased owing to greater pest resistance and more pest resurgence. The pear industry suffered classic symptoms of the ‘pesticide treadmill’. By the late 1960s, key pear industry leaders demanded action. Simultaneously, newly emerging concepts of IPM were being developed and funded. With public awareness and environmental activism on the rise in the wake of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, the stage was set for change. This paper elucidates how pear growers, university researchers and extension agents, environmentalists, government regulators, private consultants, farm chemical suppliers and others contributed to the reduction in insecticide use in California pear orchards. Today, arthropod IPM in pears is characterized as relatively low input, biologically intensive and very successful. For example, in 2008 many pear growers only applied between three and five active ingredients (mainly organically certified) per season for control of arthropods. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

The role of ecology in the development of weed management systems: an outlook

This paper discusses the extent to which a knowledge of weed biology and ecology can contribute to the development of weed management strategies. To date, such contributions have been modest and have been constrained by a number of factors that are discussed in this review. In contrast to other pest management disciplines, devising integrated weed management strategies that address a diversity of weed species with a diversity of life history traits is difficult. Because of this diversity, robust systems that require ecological insight beyond that of individual species are needed. Although the contributions have been modest, research findings have helped to shape weed management strategies in a number of important ways. Approaches directed at weed population management have revealed important insights into population equilibria, density-dependent mortality and life stages particularly important in regulating population size. Eco-physiological research has helped to guide the development of biologically effective herbicide dosage strategies, whereas mechanistic interplant competition modelling coupled with empirical field studies have aided in the identification of weed-suppressive crop phenotypes. Finally, much has been learned about the influence of control tactics and agronomic measures on the evolution of herbicide resistance and the development of integrated weed management strategies to address it. In this paper, examples are reviewed where research in ecology and biology has helped to shape the practice of integrated weed management. More importantly, characteristics of such research programmes are identified so that future efforts in the discipline will have a context in which the relevance of research questions and approaches can be considered.     

Integrated Biodiversity Management in Paddy Fields: Shift of Paradigm From IPM Toward IBM

The insect fauna in paddy fields is composed of resident, migratory and aquatic species each corresponding to the continuous cropping of rice in the same field, harvesting rice as an annual crop, and originating from still water habitats in wetlands. Although IPM is becoming popular in the control of rice pests, those minor insects and aquatic insects that have no direct economic impact on rice production have received little attention. Consequently, some of them are in danger of extinction requiring conservation. A new concept, Integrated biodiversity management (IBM), is proposed under which IPM and conservation are reconciled and made compatible with each other. As an operational concept in agroecology, premises for implementing IBM are suggested.     

Use of models to assess the reduction in contamination of water bodies by agricultural pesticides through the implementation of policy instruments: A case study of the Voluntary Initiative in the UK

Through normal agricultural use, pesticides may reach environmental water bodies via several routes of entry. Various policies and initiatives exist to reduce the effects of pesticides in the environment. One such initiative in place in the UK is the Voluntary Initiative (VI). The VI is a voluntary scheme put forward by the Crop Protection Association with other crop protection and farming organisations to reduce the environmental impacts of pesticides. Mathematical models of pesticide fate can usefully be applied to examine the impact of factors influencing the contamination of water bodies by pesticides. The work reported here used water quality models to examine how changes in farmer behaviour could potentially impact pesticide contamination of environmental water bodies. As far as possible, uncalibrated, standard regulatory models were used. Where suitable models were not available, simple models were defined for the purposes of the study and calibrated using literature data. Scenarios were developed to represent different standards of practice with respect to pesticide user behaviour. The development of these scenarios was guided by the Crop Protection Management Plan (CPMP) aspect of the VI. A framework for the use of modelling in the evaluation of the VI is proposed. The results of the modelling study suggest that, in several areas, widespread adoption of the measures proposed in the VI could lead to reductions in pesticide contamination of environmental water bodies. These areas include pesticide contamination from farmyards, spray drift and field runoff. In other areas (including pesticide leaching to groundwater and contamination of surface water from field drains) the benefits that may potentially be gained from the VI are less clear. A framework to evaluate the VI should take into consideration the following aspects: (1) groundwater is more at risk when there is a combination of leachable compounds, vulnerable soils, shallow groundwater and high product usage; (2) surface water contamination from drains is most likely when heavy rain falls soon after application, the soils are vulnerable and product usage is high; (3) surface water contamination from drift is most likely when the distance between the spray boom and water body is small and product usage is high; (4) surface water contamination from farmyards is dependent on the nature of the farmyard surface, the competence of the spray operator and the level of product usage. Any policy or initiative to reduce pesticide contamination should be measured against farmer behaviour in these areas.     

Fifty years of the integrated control concept: the role of landscape ecology in IPM in San Joaquin valley cotton

In defining the integrated control concept, Stern, Smith, van den Bosch and Hagan described ‘understanding the ecosystem’ as a key underpinning of the concept. In following years, Stern and van den Bosch continued to refine and expand the role of the ecological landscape. They and their colleagues developed cultural practices that took advantage of this understanding to limit the need of pesticide intervention in cotton in the San Joaquin Valley during the 1960s and 1970s. Research and extension activities in the intervening years built upon those fundamental concepts using geospatial tools and analytical techniques to refine current understanding and develop ecological landscape level approaches to manage Lygus hesperus (Knight) in San Joaquin Valley cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (L.) and more recently G. barbadense (L.). The result has been a significant drop in insecticide use against L. hesperus, with less than one application per season during the 1990s and early 2000s. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Tree fruit IPM programs in the western United States: the challenge of enhancing biological control through intensive management

The seminal work of Stern and his coauthors on integrated control has had a profound and long‐lasting effect on the development of IPM programs in western orchard systems. Management systems based solely on pesticides have proven to be unstable, and the success of IPM systems in western orchards has been driven by conservation of natural enemies to control secondary pests, combined with pesticides and mating disruption to suppress the key lepidopteran pests. However, the legislatively mandated changes in pesticide use patterns prompted by the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 have resulted in an increased instability of pest populations in orchards because of natural enemy destruction. The management system changes have made it necessary to focus efforts on enhancing biological control not only of secondary pests but also of primary lepidopteran pests to help augment new pesticides and mating disruption tactics. The new management programs envisioned will be information extensive as well as time sensitive and will require redesign of educational and outreach programs to be successful. The developing programs will continue to use the core principles of Stern and his co‐authors, but go beyond them to incorporate changes in society, technology and information transfer, as needed. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Application of pathogen surveys,disease nurseries and varietal resistance characteristics in an IPM approach for the control of wheat yellow rust

The present paper presents the rationale for the use of pathogen surveys, inoculated and non-inoculated disease nurseries and varietal resistance characteristics in an integrated approach to control wheat yellow rust in Denmark. The non-inoculated disease observation plots, which gave valuable information about yellow rust at the year, site and variety level, served as the primary sample source for the pathogen survey revealing pathogen virulence dynamics. This survey was also the main source for isolates of new pathotypes, a prerequisite for the assessment of the resistance characteristics of varieties and breeding lines in inoculated nurseries, and the postulation of race-specific resistance genes. A simple grouping of varieties into four categories with respect to resistance to the current yellow rust population proved robust, and this grouping was used as a determinant in a web-based decision support system for pesticide applications in cereals, Crop Protection On-line (CPO). The interplay between the different research and survey activities in the integrated pest management (IPM) approach demonstrated the need for a coherent and long-term involvement at all stages from plant breeding to the official variety approval system, extension service and research in disease epidemiology and resistance genetics.     

Ten years after the arrival in Ghana of Larger Grain Borer: Farmers' responses and adoption of IPM strategies

Small-scale on-farm storage of maize in Africa is changing, in part due to shifts in the threat from insect pests. A questionnaire survey of 242 households in four closely situated districts in the Volta Region of Ghana, where Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) arrived ten years ago, was used to show how maize storage practices have changed over the last five years. The survey included asking farmers about changing use of contact insecticides in maize storage in order to guide research and future recommendations. We found high uptake of recommendations developed by a project for reducing Larger Grain Borer damage. Farmers are being pro-active in preventing extensive damage from this pest by replacing the wood of their storage structures, increasing inspection of maize in their stores, and increasing their use of grain protectants. There were differences in post-harvest practices according to district, ethnic group and gender. Grain protectants (traditional methods or commercially available products) were used by 45% of farmers. Cost was the most often cited constraint to the use of recommended commercial products. Farmers reported that their three most important sources of information on maize storage were the agricultural extension services, radio programmes and local networks of friends, family and fellow farmers.     

晋南冬麦区大麦黄矮病毒流行株系监测及防治策略探讨

连续5年(1996～2000年)采集晋南冬麦区小麦黄矮病标样,采用生物学和血清学(酶联免疫吸附法)相结合的诊断方法对该地区的大麦黄矮病毒流行株系进行了鉴别。结果表明,该小麦黄矮病流行区近五年以GAV株系为主流株系,兼有少量GPV、PAV和混合株系存在。同时对小麦抗黄矮病新品种“临抗1号”进行了GPV和GAV两种株系的抗性测定,明确了该品种兼抗GPV和GAV两种株系。根据小麦黄矮病发生现状,提出了一套以选育推广抗耐病品种为主,以药剂防治为辅的综合防治措施。以期为当地小麦生产服务。     

黄土丘陵区生态建设效应与农户响应

黄土丘陵区是我国1999年实施的以退耕还林为中心的生态建设工程重点地区之一。文中以文献和农户调查数据为基础,对黄土丘陵区特别是陕北安塞县,生态建设对其植被恢复、粮食生产、农民收入的影响进行了梳理和总结,并分析了农户对生态建设的认知与响应。研究认为,生态建设显著促进了区域的植被恢复,增加了退耕农户的收入,得到了农户的积极...     

A hundred and more years of plant protection in the Netherlands

At the occasion of the Centenary of the Netherlands Society of Plant Pathology a reflection on past, present and future of plant protection, the subject matter of the Society, was thought to be appropriate.Developments in plant protection are projected against a general stream of thought. Three turning points are distinguished which can be seen as paradigm changes. The first occurred around 1890, when the concept of pathogenitism gained its final victory over autogenitism. The second occurred around 1940, when the public outlook on human and plant health changed drastically due to the advent of chemotherapeutants. The third occurred around 1990 when a clear change in public thinking on agriculture, environment and plant protection became apparent. The background of these changes is sketched in a personal manner.Some ideas on plant protection beyond the year 2000 are given, based upon recent developments in the Netherlands to which the Society contributed in its own way.     

The Adoption of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) by Tropical Fruit Growers in Thailand as an Example of Change Management Theory and Practice

Integrated pest management (IPM) is a well-known innovation that accords with modern environmental management's (EMs) best practice. In this paper, it is examined in two ways. First, a recent IPM knowledge diffusion project in a region of Thailand, where durian is extensively grown, is described and analysed in relation to the adoption of both its philosophy and methods by growers. Particular use is made of a theory of innovation (Rogers) to depict the intensity, rate and scale of adoption by the durian growers. Second, attention is focused on IPM as an expression of theory and practice in change management. What is shown is that successful adoption of IPM depends upon a number of factors, notably durian growers perceptions of relative advantage and the way the approach is communicated and learned by them through practical application. In terms of change management theory, the intelligent way IPM knowledge was transferred, through the mediating role of agricultural extension workers (AEWs), reflected the current emphasis on collaborative partnerships and learning as an effective means of managing change in complex environments.     

草地贪夜蛾对云南德宏玉米经济损失评估及防治措施调查

草地贪夜蛾Spodoptera frugiperda自2019年1月入侵我国云南以来,快速蔓延为害,严重威胁我国的玉米生产和粮食安全。本研究基于云南省德宏州351份玉米农户调查数据,利用以直接经济损失和防治费用为基础的经济损失评估模型,估算了2019年草地贪夜蛾对德宏州玉米生产造成的经济损失,并分析了农户实际采用的防治措施。结果表明,2019年草地贪夜蛾对德宏州玉米生产造成的经济损失约为1 399.29万元,其中,玉米产量变化造成的直接经济损失约为366.51万元,农户防治投入增加和政府宣传、培训和防治等费用支出约为1 032.78万元。本研究不但为了解草地贪夜蛾对我国不同地区作物生产造成的经济损失提供例证,也为因地制宜地制定草地贪夜蛾防治策略提供科学依据。     

Ecological migration effects on the Tianchi Scenic Area in Xinjiang: from the perspective of migrant farmer families

As an important approach for relieving conflicts between ecosystems and human activities in the Tianchi Scenic Area,Xinjiang of China,an ecological migration policy was implemented,aiming to improve the regional ecological environment.The case of resettlement was closely related to the smooth implementation of the migration project.Based on the questionnaires and farmer family interviews,both changes in the ecological envi-ronment and the living conditions of migrant farmer families in the Tianchi Scenic Area were investigated in this study.The objectives were to assess the benefits of the ecological migration policy and to analyze the effects of ecological migration on migrant farmer families.The results showed that (1) awareness of the need for ecological environmental protection and the types of migrant families had a great influence on the willingness to migration;(2) since the implementation of the ecological migration project,the ecological environment in the Tianchi Scenic Area had improved significantly,particularly in terms of returning farmland to forestry,while pressures on grassland had also been relieved to some extent;(3) the major income sources and occupations of the migrant farmer families changed,the range of their income sources declined,and their per capita incomes decreased at different degrees;and (4) nearly half of the farmer families were not satisfied with the living environment of new settlements and the decline in the quality of life had significant influences on the attitudes of migrants.In order to ensure the successful implementation of an ecological migration project,it is essential to enhance farmer awareness of needs for ecological environmental protection,and to solve resettlement problems properly.