Daily fecundity of Temora longicornis (Copepoda calanoida) in the Oosterschelde estuary (SW Netherlands)

Daily fecundity of Temora longicornis in the Oosterschelde was estimated in 1986 and 1987 after 24 h incubation of female copepods collected in the estuary. Daily egg production fluctuated between 3 and 25 eggs per female.Egg production rates increased with temperature in the range of 3 to 15°C when algal food was present in excess. Limiting food conditions were found at the end of the phytoplankton spring bloom and occasionally in summer at concentrations of ⩽2 μg chlorophyll·dm⁻³. When chlorophyll maxima were found, predominantly consisting of Phaeocystis, daily fecundity of Temora was suppressed. It could increase, however, in Phaeocystis blooms mixed with diatoms (Rhizosolenia delicatula).Standing stocks of eggs in the springs of 1986 and 1987 were calculated on the basis of the established temperature/fecundity relation and compared with observed numbers, both in the years 1986 and 1987 (estuary provided with a storm-surge barrier in the mouth) and in the years 1983 and 1984 (open estuary).Smaller differences between observed and calculated egg numbers in 1986 and 1987 could be ascribed to possible errors in calculated egg development time and to the different age structure of females in the course of time.Much larger differences were found between the years 1986–1987 and 1983–1984. These are discussed in relation to the following phenomena: sinking of eggs, cannibalism, predation, food quantity and availability, density-dependent effects, hydrodynamical changes of the estuary. Arguments are given for density-dependent factors being responsible for the strongly reduced egg numbers in 1984.     

Organic carbon in the water column and its sedimentation,fladen ground (North Sea), May 1983

POC, DOC and sedimentation were studied during the spring phytoplankton bloom from April 27 to May 25. POC in the euphotic layer consisted largely of phytoplankton, maximum values of 0.5 mg·dm⁻³ were found at the height of a bloom of the colonial microflagellate Corymbellus aureus. DOC increased during the waxing of this C. aureus bloom to a maximum of 2.4 mg·dm⁻³ after the bloom. Data indicate that most of the primary produced material ended up in the DOC pool. Sedimentation accounted only for small losses from the euphotic zone: ca 1% of the daily primary produced material sank out, except at the end of the C. aureus bloom when values increased to almost 10%. Daily sedimentation amounted to no more than 0.1 to 1% of the amounts present in the euphotic layer of POC, chlorophyll and phytoplankton cells.     

Food intake and growth of Sarsia tubulosa (SARS, 1835), with quantitative estimates of predation on copepod populations

In laboratory tests food intake by the hydromedusa Sarsia tubulosa, which feeds on copepods, was quantified. Estimates of maximum predation are presented for 10 size classes of Sarsia. Growth rates, too, were determined in the laboratory, at 12°C under ad libitum food conditions. Mean gross food conversion for all size classes averaged 12%.From the results of a frequent sampling programme, carried out in the Texelstroom (a tidal inlet of the Dutch Wadden Sea) in 1983, growth rates of Sarsia in the field equalled maximum growth under experimental conditions, which suggests that Sarsia in situ can feed at an optimum level. Two estimates of predation pressure in the field matched very closely and lead to the conclusion that the impact of Sarsia predation on copepod standing stocks in the Dutch coastal area, including the Wadden Sea, is generally negligible.     

Consumption of eelgrass,zostera marina,by birds and invertebrates during the growing season in lake grevelingen (SW Netherlands)

During the growing season May through August 1976 living eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in brackish Lake Grevelingen (108 km²) provided quantifiable amounts of food to 6 species of animals, viz. 5 bird species (Cygnus olor, Branta bernicla, Fulica atra, Aythya ferina and Anas platyrhynchos) and 1 invertebrate species, the isopod Idotea chelipes. Consumption of eelgrass amounted to 0.839 g C·m⁻² for the entire Lake Grevelingen, 23% for the birds and 77% for Idotea respectively. In a realistic estimate this means that only 3.7% of the living eelgrass production, estimated at 23 g C·m⁻²·y⁻¹ for the entire Lake Grevelingen, was consumed by macroconsumers during the growing season. A maximum estimate of eelgrass consumption leads to 1.486 g C·m⁻², i.e. 6.5% of the eelgrass production during the period May through August.     

Phytoplankton primary production,chlorophyll and composition in an inlet of the Western Wadden Sea (Marsdiep)

From February 1974 to April 1976, estimates for in situ phytoplankton primary production in the Marsdiep tidal inlet area of the western Dutch Wadden Sea were made from incubator primary production data using a constant light source. Low values were estimated in winter with a minimum in January (average 0.016 g C·m⁻²·d⁻¹. Values increased rapidly from the middle of March during the spring phytoplankton bloom to a maximum in May (average 1.1 g C·m⁻² ·d⁻¹, maxima of 3 g C·m⁻²·d⁻¹ or more). During summer these estimates showed large short-term variations in in situ primary production from incubator data as well as in in situ measurements during 1 to 3 days in June and August in the years 1971 to 1979. This variability forms a problem in estimating annual phytoplankton primary production in the area. It also prevents a reliable comparison of the present estimate with earlier estimates of annual primary production based on fewer data (one per month or less). It is likely that also in other areas, in particular in coastal regions, similar difficulties in estimating primary production will be encountered.     

Life history and reproductive biology of Corophium volutator (crustacea: amphipoda) and the influence of shorebird predation on population structure in chignecto bay,bay of fundy,Canada

Intertidal populations of Corophium volutator were sampled over a 17-month period at 5 locations in Chignecto Bay, Bay of Fundy, Canada. This is a macrotidal environment with extensive mudflats. Two generations were produced annually. The lengths of gravid females and brood sized were larger than those previously reported in most European studies. Production was highest during May-September. During late summer (July-September) the larger animals were selectively removed from the population by predatory shorebirds (Charadriiformes) thus modifying the population structure from a bimodal to a unimodal distribution composed of numerous but small animals. Although shorebird predation was extensive, the associated reductions in Corophium densities were temporary-Densities increased following the birds' departure from the study sites in early fall. Frequency distribution histograms of size classes remained unimodal and growth was low, until the next breeding season. Annual net production over 2 one-year periods was 6250 and 3277 mg·m⁻² (dry weight).     

Size and phytoplankton selection by oosterschelde zooplankton

Grazing of adults of the copepods Acartia spp., Temora longicornis, Centropages hamatus and nauplii of Balanus spp. on natural particulate matter from the Oosterschelde was studied using a Coulter counter. Two types of particulate matter distributions were found to occur in the Oosterschelde: 1. distributions with distinct peaks in the > 20 μm size range (A) and 2. more flattened distributions which were bell-shaped or contained multiple small peaks spread over the entire 4–100 μm size range (B). In A-type distributions, peak tracking was performed in all species studied, especially in Acartia spp. and T. longicornis. In B-type distributions, the animals tended to spread their grazing activity towards the smaller particles.Quantitative microscopical analysis of the phytoplankton distributions shows that A- and B-type distributions were caused by the presence (A) or absence (B) of blooms of phytoplankton species with an SED of > 20 μm, reaching concentrations of >1.40·10⁶ μm³·cm⁻³.The demonstrated clearance rate distributions are shown to result in a concentration of phytoplankton in the ingested material as compared to the medium for all copepod species studied. Balanus spp. nauplii did not demonstrate this systematic selection of phytoplankton. When B-distributions occurred, only Acartia spp. switched its feeding activity towards smaller particles to such a degree that a substantial contribution of the <20 μm size range to the ingested material resulted. Whether this behaviour represents a higher selection capacity for small phytoplankton species or a detritivorous behaviour remains an open question.     

Settlement,abundance, growth and mortality of juvenile flatfish in a subtropical tidal estuary (Georgia,U.S.A.)

The population dynamics of juveniles of some flatfish species were studied in the Duplin River, a tidal creek in a subtropical salt-marsh area in Georgia, U.S.A. from April until September 1990. Seven species were found. Paralichthys dentatus, Paralichthys lethostigma, Paralichthys oblongus and Trinectus maculatus were relatively rare. Etropus crossotus, Citharichthys spilopterus and Symphurus plagiusa were abundant and settled during the period studied. E. crossotus was the most abundant species with a mean abundance of 18 ind·10⁻² m⁻² (max. 287). Demersal settlement of E. crossotus took place in shallow areas and over sandy bottoms from mid-May to August. Prolonged settlement hampered the calculation of growth rate and instantaneous mortality rate. However, laboratory growth experiments indicated a mean growth of about 0.50 mm·d⁻¹ at 24–28°C. Juveniles of C. spilopterus were already present in the Duplin River in March. Settling continued until the end of April with a mean abundance of 3.5 ind·10⁻² m⁻² (max. 183). With increasing size the juveniles of this species tended to migrate to deeper waters and to the mouth of the river, possibly as a reaction to increasing water temperatures. Maximum growth rate was 1.4 mm·d⁻¹ at about 26°C. The mean instantaneous mortality rate (z) was estimated at 0.03·d⁻¹. Settling of S. plagiusa occurred from mid-May onwards. The mean abundance was 10.3 ind·10⁻² m⁻² (max. 98.3). Newly settled juveniles were most abundant on muddy sediments in the shallow river areas. The maximum growth rate was 1.3 mm·d⁻¹ at about 28°C. The mean instantaneous mortality rate (Z) decreased from 0.04·d⁻¹ in April to 0.01·d⁻¹ in August. At all sites the abundance of juveniles of this species decreased with increasing water depth. Predation experiments indicated that blue crabs (Callinectes similis and C. sapidus) and sea robins (Prionotus sp.) are potential predators on juvenile flatfish. The high abundances of juvenile flatfish indicate that the tidal creeks are an important nursery area. The correspondence between growth rates estimated from field data and those observed in the laboratory suggests that growth in the nursery is mainly related to water temperature and not food limited.     

Organic carbon in the upper 100 m and downward flux in the banda sea; monsoonal differences

Organic carbon was measured in the upper 100 m and its downward flux from the euphotic zone recorded, as part of a multidisciplinary study in the Banda Sea on monsoonal differences in the upper water layers.All 35 stations occupied showed on average 1.5 times higher POC values in August 1984 (4.9 g·m⁻², SE monsoon, upwelling period) than in February/March 1985 (3.3 g·m⁻², NW monsoon, downwelling period) for the 0 to 100 m water column. Monsoonal variation in POC was confined to the surface layer and related to a variation in phytoplankton content; it can be explained by — local— upwelling during the SE monsoon. At 100 m no seasonal variation occurred.Contrary to POC, average figures for DOC in February/March were almost twice the average observed in August (66.5 against 37.5 g·m⁻² for the 0 to 100 m water column). In February/March spatial variation was more pronounced than in August with highest values occurring in the NE part (>100 g·m⁻², 0 to 100 m), with a subsurface maximum. In this period the NW monsoon causes a surface current to the east. This might cause a westward subsurface countercurrent of Arafura Sea water rich in riverine or benthic layer DOC, influencing the eastern Banda Sea.At 100 m depth daily sedimentation amounted to ∼50 mg C·m⁻². The limited number of data do not indicate a difference between the 2 periods. On average the daily downward flux at 100 m depth amounted to 1.2% of POC and 0.8% of chlorophyll present in the 0 to 100 m water column, and equalled 5% of the daily primary production.     

Distribution and abundance of the zooplankton of the Ems estuary (North Sea)

From 1974 to 1977 a study was made of the abundance and the distribution of the zooplankton species of the Ems estuary (The Netherlands and the Federal Republic of Germany), an area of about 500 km² with extensive tidal flats.The most important component of the zooplankton consisted of holoplanktonic calanoid copepods with, during the summer, a significant contribution of meroplankton, mainly consisting of polychaete and cirripede larvae. Zooplankton abundance showed a marked seasonality, with a pronounced spring peak and a smaller late summer/autumn peak. In the low salinity area the spring bloom was dominated by Eurytemora affinis, which persisted in the salinities below S=5 upriver during the whole year. In the polyhaline area Acartia bifilosa was the main component of the spring bloom. The late summer maximum from August to October was dominated by Acartia tonsa in the meso- and polyhaline area and by A. discaudata and Centropages hamatus in the euhaline part of the estuary bordering on the Wadden Sea proper. The number of abundant (> 1000 ind·m⁻³) species increased from the inner, fresher part of the estuary towards the Wadden Sea but, except for April, average zooplankton density in salinities <18 was similar (2768 ind·m⁻³) to the density in salinities >18 (2817 ind·m⁻³).The distribution patterns show that there are only a few autochthonous species and that the majority of species is allochthonous and penetrates more or less deeply into the estuary from the Wadden Sea and North Sea, varying with species and season.     

Phytoplankton biomass and potential nutrient limitation of phytoplankton development in the southeastern North Sea in spring 1985 and 1986

The vernal phytoplankton bloom was observed during cruises to the southeastern part of the North Sea (east of 6°20' E, south of 56°50'N) in 1985 and 1986. Maximum phytoplankton biomass expressed as phytoplankton carbon was similar in both years (14.5 and 17 g PPCm⁻² respectively). In 1985 the bloom was located in the less saline coastal water close to the North Frisian coast. Phytoplankton was dominated by Coscinodiscus concinnus and Thalassiosira nordenskiöldii. In 1986, highest phytoplankton biomass was observed northwest of the island of Sylt, where Thalassiosira nordenskiöldii was the dominant phytoplankton species. Within the areas of high phytoplankton standing stock, concentrations of the inorganic dissolved nutrients phosphate and silicate had dropped to nearly undetectable concentrations, whereas both in 1985 and 1986 the water was still rich (10 – 20 μM.dm⁻³) in inorganic nitrogen (DIN). This, as well as the high ratios of DIN:PO₄ and DIN:Si(OH)₄ (> 50) point to phosphate and silicate as potential limiting nutrients during the spring phytoplankton bloom. The ratios of total nitrogen (TN) to total phosphorous (TP) (> 30) indicate also that phosphorous might then be in short supply. Phosphate and silicate have to be considered as potentially limiting nutrients during the vernal plankton bloom in the coastal waters of the southeastern North Sea, with nitrogen being present in surplus at that time of the year. However, in the more offshore areas nitrogen may be considered the potentially limiting element at the same time.     

Primary production of phytoplankton in a turbid coastal plain estuary,the Westerschelde (The Netherlands)

An extensive survey was carried out in the Westerschelde estuary in 1989 to estimate phytoplankton primary productivity. High nutrient concentrations year round and very high turbidity resulted in light-limited growth of phytoplankton. This was reflected in a conservative behaviour of silicate and phosphate. The same was true for total inorganic nitrogen. However, in the inner part of the estuary nitrification took place. The calculated annual primary production was 200 – 300 gC·m⁻² at the range 29-20 salinity, 100–150 gC·m⁻² at 18-10 salinity and increased sharply to 900 gC·m⁻² at 2.5 salinity due to freshwater populations. In the inner part of the estuary the vertical mixing zone was frequently larger than 5 times the euphotic zone. The high rates of primary production we measured contrast with generally expected values. This corroborates Grobbelaar's hypothesis that the critical depth can be seriously underestimated. Phytoplankton copes with the turbid conditions by adjusting light-utilization efficiencies.     

Organochlorine residues analysed in invertebrates of the Dutch Wadden Sea by two methods

Two laboratories analysed 12 organochlorine compounds in the same and parallel samples of 3 invertebrate species (Cerastoderma edule, Mya arenaria, Crangon crangon) obtained from the western Dutch Wadden Sea in 1976. The two different analytical methods used resulted in very similar mean residue levels. These levels deviated in only 2 out of 16 cases by more than 50%. The PCB levels predominated with 20 to 100 ng·g⁻¹, and were higher than those of the same species from the Weser estuary, Germany. The other compounds ranged generally below 6 ng·g⁻¹.     

Abundance,growth and food demand of the scyphomedusa Aurelia aurita in the western Wadden Sea

Medusae of Aurelia aurita are found in the western Wadden Sea from the beginning of May till August with maximum numbers of 250 to 500 individuals per 10³ m³ during May-June. The existence of a continuous ebb surplus suggests an origin from polyps living in the inner parts of the estuary and a transport or migration of the released medusae towards the North Sea. Growth is fast; a bell size of 20 cm diameter is reached within 3 to 4 months. The species is important as a predator from May to July, reaching maximum carbon biomass values of 12 to 18 g C·10³ m⁻³. Predation by A. aurita may affect the recruitment of one of its food sources, viz. fish larvae.     

Application of a dynamic energy budget model to Mytilus edulis (L.)

Filtering, ingestion, assimilation respiration, growth and reproduction of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis were successfully described in terms of a dynamic energy budget (DEB) model, which previously had been applied successfully to a variety of other species. The relation between oxygen consumption rate and ingestion rate could be derived from elementary model assumptions. Parameters of the DEB model, estimated for laboratory situations, were applied to field data. The varying growth rates in the field could be described by taking account of changes in food density and quality, and temperature, on the basis of the Arrhenius relation. A methodology is given to reconstruct ambient food densities from observed growth curves. This can be used to assess the nutritive value of measured substances such as POM or chlorophyll. The concept Scope For Growth is discussed and interpreted in terms of the DEB model. The energy conductance is found to be 0.36 mm·d⁻¹ at 20°C, which is close to the mean of many species: 0.43 mm·d⁻¹.     

Food intake and growth in Macoma balthica (mollusca) in the laboratory

Groups of Macoma balthica were kept during 4-week periods in an experimental set up at a constant temperature and food concentration. Food concentrations (expressed in particulate organic carbon) for the different groups ranged from 0 to 16 mg C·I⁻¹. The experiment was repeated 6 times, viz. in different months, and the temperatures were changed accordingly to correspond with levels found in the field. The rates of food intake, water clearance and growth were followed throughout the experiment. The flagellate Isochrysis galbana served as food.With increasing food concentration all 3 rates (food intake, water clearance and growth) increased up to maximum to decrease again at high food concentrations. Such bell-shaped relationships were observed in all seasons. The dependence of growth on food concentration was similar in all seasons. Zero growth or weight losses were observed at food concentrations below 1.3 mg C·I⁻¹, and maximum growth rates were reached at food concentrations between 5 and 7 mg C·I⁻¹. The daily maintenance ration amounted to about 1.2% of the body weight.Seasonal differences were observed in the relationships of the rates of both water clearance and food intake with food concentration. During the winter and spring the optimum curves for these relationships reached their maximum at food concentrations of 8 to 10 mg C·I⁻¹. During summer and early autumn the optimum curves were shifted to lower food concentrations, around 2 to 4 mg C·I⁻¹, probably as an adaptation to low food concentrations observed in the field during these periods.     

咸蛋清资源化综合利用的研究

咸蛋是我国特有的一种风味特殊、食用方便的再制蛋。咸蛋在我国拥有悠久的生产历史。日常生活和食品加工业中,人们经常利用咸蛋制作美味的菜肴和食品,但是利用过程中咸蛋黄的使用量较大,而咸蛋清由于其咸味较重往往被当作垃圾扔弃。咸蛋清极易腐败,滋生蚊蝇,产生臭气和污水,既污染了环境,又造成了蛋白质资源的浪费。对近年来咸蛋清资源化综合利用的研究进展进行综述。     

Wind effects on prey availability: How northward migrating waders use brackish and hypersaline lagoons in the sivash,Ukraine

Large numbers of waders migrating northward in spring use the Sivash, a large system of shallow, brackish and hypersaline lagoons in the Black Sea and Azov Sea region (Ukraine). The bottoms of these lagoons are often uncovered by the wind. Hence, for waders the time and space available for feeding depend on wind conditions. In hypersaline lagoons the benthic and pelagic fauna was very poor, consisting mainly of chironomid larvae (0.19 g AFDM·m⁻²) and brine shrimps Artemia salina, respectively. Brine shrimp abundance was correlated with salinity, wind force, wind direction and water depth. Dunlin Calidris alpina and curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea were the only species feeding on brine shrimp. As brine shrimp densities are higher in deeper water, smaller waders such as broad-billed sandpipers Limicola falcinellus are too short-legged to reach exploitable densities of brine shrimp. In brackish lagoons the benthic and pelagic fauna was rich, consisting of polychaetes, bivalves, gastropods, chironomid larvae, isopods and amphipods (8.9 to 30.5 g AFDM·m⁻²), but there were no brine shrimps. Prey biomass increased with the distance from the coast, being highest on the site that was most frequently inundated. Dunlin, broad-billed sandpiper and grey plover Pluvialis squatarola were the most abundant birds in the brackish lagoon. Due to the effects of wind-tides only a small area was usually available as a feeding site. Gammarus insensibilis was the alternative prey resource in the water layer, and their density varied with wind direction in the same way as brine shrimp. Curlew sandpipers and dunlins in the hypersaline lagoons and broad-billed sandpipers in the brackish lagoons often changed feeding sites, probably following the variation in prey availability. Only because of the large size and variety of lagoons are waders in the Sivash always able to find good feeding sites.     

Improved persistence of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) increases the protein supplied by red clover/grass swards grown over four harvest years

UK livestock agriculture can significantly reduce its protein imports by increasing the amount of forage based protein grown on-farm. Forage legumes such as red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) produce high dry matter yields of quality forage but currently available varieties lack persistence, particularly under grazing. To assess the impact of red clover persistence on protein yield, diploid red clover populations selected for improved persistence were compared with a range of commercially available varieties. All populations were grown over four harvest years in mixed swards with either perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) or perennial plus hybrid ryegrass (L. boucheanum Kunth). Red clover and total sward dry matter (DM) herbage yields were measured in Years 1–4, red clover plant survival in Years 3 and 4 and herbage protein (CP) yield and concentration in Years 2 and 4. In general, red clover DM yield in year 4 (3.4 t ha⁻¹) was lower than in year 1 (13.9 t ha⁻¹) but the red clover populations differed in the extent of this decline. Differences in the persistence of the red clover populations in terms of plant survival and yield were reflected in the contribution of red clover to the total sward yield in Year 4, which ranged from 61% for the highest yielding population, AberClaret, to 11% in the lowest yielding, Vivi. Increased red clover DM yield was reflected in a greater CP yield (protein weight per unit area), which ranged from 1.6 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ to 2.9 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in Year 2 and from 1.1 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ to 1.9 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in Year 4. CP concentration (protein weight per unit herbage weight) of all of the red clover populations was within a range considered suitable for ruminant production. The implication of these results for the future use of red clover in sustainable grassland systems is discussed.     

Effect of the brown shrimp Crangon crangon L. on endobenthic macrofauna,meiofauna and meiofaunal grazing rates

The effect of natural densities (50 and 100 ind·m⁻²) of juvenile (<20 mm) Crangon crangon on abundance of endobenthic macrofauna and meiofauna and on meiofaunal grazing rates was investigated in two experiments using an outdoor flow-through system with sandy sediment. The experiments differed in duration (3 wk and 7.5 wk), and in time of the year (August – September and July – August). Macrofaunal biomass differed by a factor of 10 between the experiments, and was depressed by shrimp in both experiments. Neither total meiofaunal biomass, nor the biomass of the dominant taxon (nematodes), was significantly affected by the presence of Crangon in the shorter experiment. However, harpacticoid copepods and other meiofauna taxa (mainly ostracods, foraminiferans and juvenile bivalves) decreased in the presence of Crangon. In the longer experiment, no significant effect of Crangon on meiofauna was seen, and the biomass of most meiofaunal groups increased in all treatments. Meiofaunal grazing rates in microalgae and bacteria, measured with a dual-labelling method, using ¹⁴C-bicarbonate and [methyl-³]]-thymidine as tracers, were 0.7 to 4.7% of algal biomass per day, and 0.8 to 7.9% of bacterial biomass per day. Generally, grazing rates were lower in the presence than in the absence of Crangon. In terms of carbon ingested, microalgae constituted a more important food source than bacteria for all three meiofaunal groups (nematodes, harpacticoids and other meiofauna). No individual growth of Crangon was found in the high-density treatment in the longer experiment, suggesting that intraspecific competition occurred. The difference between the two experiments in the effect of Crangon on meiofauna is thought to be caused by the large difference in macrofaunal biomass between the experiments; the shrimp ate mainly juvenile macrofauna in the longer experiment. Overall, the effect of Crangon on the sediment system was weak, suggesting that other factors (physical and chemical) are more important than epibenthic predation in setting the overall limits for production in this sediment.