The pikas of China: a review of current research priorities and challenges for conservation

Of the approximately 30 extant species of pika (Ochotona; Ochotonidae; Lagomorpha), at least 23 occur in China. Of these, 8 are endemic, and 3 are classified as Endangered by the IUCN. Research into most Chinese species is scarce, and there is much to learn about basic aspects of their ecology. We reviewed the literature on the 23 Chinese Ochotona species, with the aim of highlighting knowledge gaps and biases in research allocation. Specifically, we identify (1) which pika species receive the most attention from researchers, (2) which topics are the most frequently studied, and (3) how well research satisfies conservation priorities. We covered a total of 879 articles, most of which were written in English or Chinese. Around 75% of all publications focused on the plateau pika Ochotona curzoniae. Seven species were represented by 10 or fewer publications each. Endangered and endemic species were particularly poorly represented. 204 papers treated pikas as a pest, while 13 studied conservation issues. Nine species were considered possible targets for pest control, including some poorly known endemics. We make some recommendations on how research into Chinese Ochotona could be improved, including: (1) recognizing that the current species-level taxonomy may be an ineffective way to prioritize conservation research in Ochotona, (2) directing more research toward threatened and endemic species, subspecies, and populations, (3) researching the ecosystem engineering effects of pikas, (4) collecting basic data on natural history of the many understudied species, and (5) researching threats, including climate change and pest control campaigns.     

Reforming communal rangeland policy in southern Africa: challenges,dilemmas and opportunities

In the savanna rangelands of southern Africa, the debate about land reform tends to be about the redistribution of formerly freehold ranches and fencing-off the rangeland commons into ranches for better-off African farmers. The position of those who favour privatisation has been strengthened by the belief that the only environmentally sound way to manage the range is to subdivide it into private ranches because traditional open-range pastoralism is environmentally destructive. This point of view is at variance with an ever-increasing body of research. Insufficient attention has been given to the sustainable nature of communal rangeland in savanna areas and to the needs of the poor who depend upon them. Following decades of policies that further reduced and fragmented the commonage, governments have the challenging task of developing and implementing policies for those whose livelihoods depend on more secure and sustainable access to the remaining communal rangelands.     

Digestive efficiency of indigenous and invasive avian species fed fruit of invasive alien plants in South Africa

Many highly invasive plant species produce fleshy fruit that are consumed and dispersed by frugivorous birds. However, little is known about assimilation efficiency of invasive fruit by indigenous and invasive avian species. We investigated whether indigenous Knysna (Tauraco corythaix) and Purple-crested (Gallirex porphyreolophus) Turacos and invasive alien Rose-ringed Parakeets (Psittacula krameri) met their energy demands when fed fruits of four fleshy- fruited invasive alien plant species: Solanum mauritianum, Cinnamomum camphora, Psidium guajava and Morus alba. Birds were fed single-fruit diets for two consecutive days and energetic parameters were calculated for all fruit diets. Our results showed that generally both invasive and indigenous avian species managed to gain their daily energy requirements from fruits of the four respective invasive plants, suggesting that they can meet their energetic demands by feeding on them only. The exception was P. krameri, which did not feed on S. mauritianum fruit. These findings may explain why fruits of invasive alien plants are attractive to most avian frugivores and highlight the role of avian frugivores in their dispersal.     

Community Fisheries in Eastern South Dakota: Angler Demographics,Use, and Factors Influencing Satisfaction

We surveyed anglers on five community fishing lakes near Brookings, South Dakota to assess angler use and satisfaction. The community lakes attracted younger anglers when compared to statewide and national averages. Overall, satisfaction was generally high (74%) among anglers fishing community lakes. Logistic regression analysis showed that harvest rate, anglers targeting trout, familiarity with the lake, adults fishing with children, and fishing during open water periods were significantly related to angler satisfaction. Angler parties consisting of adults fishing with children were 1.7 times more likely to respond as “satisfied” compared with adults-only angler groups. Fishing opportunities provided by community lakes can enhance participation by younger anglers while simultaneously providing family-oriented recreation (i.e., adults fishing with children) that enhances trip satisfaction.     

Molecular genetics of behaviour: research strategies and perspectives for animal production

Genetic factors are undoubtedly involved in inter-individual variability of the behaviours that may be important for livestock production, as shown by pedigree studies, comparison of genetic stocks raised in the same environment, and selection experiments. The knowledge of gene polymorphisms responsible for genetic variability would increase the efficiency of selection, as shown for instance by the identification of the ryanodine receptor gene that harbours the mutations responsible for the porcine stress syndrome, that allows the eradication of the susceptibility allele. One strategy is to screen systematically the genes that are known to be involved in regulation of behaviour (functional candidate genes). This strategy is however very difficult for most behavioural traits, since behaviour is an emerging function from the whole brain/body and the molecular pathways involved in genetic variability are very poorly understood. Another strategy is to investigate linkage between trait variation and genetic markers in a segregating population (usually an intercross or backcross between two strains or breeds contrasting for the trait under study). It allows the detection of genomic regions influencing that trait (quantitative trait loci or QTL), and further investigation aims at the identification of the gene(s) located in each of these regions and the molecular polymorphisms involved in phenotypic variation. Although many QTL have been published for behavioural traits in experimental animals, very few examples are available where strong candidate genes have been identified. Further progress will be very much dependent upon the careful definition of behavioural traits to be studied (including their importance for animal production), on the reliability of their measurement in a large number of animals and on the efficient mastering of environmental factors of variability. The fast increase in the knowledge of genome sequence in several species will undoubtedly facilitate the application to farm animal species of the knowledge obtained in model organisms, as well as the use of model organisms to explore candidate genes detected by QTL studies in farm animals.     

Causes of admissions to a raptor rehabilitation centre in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

With many species of southern African raptors becoming increasingly threatened, records from rehabilitation centres can give an indication of the threats faced by birds of prey in particular areas and to particular species. Thus, admissions records from a raptor rehabilitation centre in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, were analysed for trends. Over eight years (2004–2011), 547 birds from 39 raptor species were admitted to the centre. The majority of individuals were spotted eagle-owls (16.6%), western barn owls (15.2%) and yellow-billed kites (9.7%). The most frequent known causes of injury to raptors were motor vehicle accidents and injuries caused when birds flew into buildings. There was no significant difference in admissions of motor vehicle collision cases between seasons. People generally waited 3.8 days before bringing injured raptors in to the centre, and approximately half of the birds admitted were fed within that time, highlighting a need for public education regarding the general diets of raptors and the benefits of prompt medical attention.     

Observations of microtrash ingestion in Cape Vultures in the Eastern Cape,South Africa

Ingestion of man-made items by birds can reduce stomach volume and block the digestive track. In southern Africa, microtrash within the regurgitation of Cape Vulture nestlings was last documented in 1983. We present evidence of nestling microtrash ingestion after a 30-year gap. Vulture nestlings were captured at a breeding colony in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. One nestling regurgitated three microtrash fragments. Two pieces of microtrash were collected from the nest of another nestling. Neither nestling appeared to have skeletal deformities or feather stress bars. Our results highlight the persistence of microtrash ingestion by Cape Vulture nestlings, which could impact the species negatively.     

An economic comparison of typical dairy farming systems in South Africa, Morocco, Uganda and Cameroon

Population growth, urbanisation and increased per capita milk consumption are main reasons for recent increasing milk demand in Africa. Due to globalisation, it is important to know how competitive various production systems are, especially as most governments promote local production and disfavour dairy imports. The TIPI-CAL (Technology Impact, Policy Impact Calculations model) was used to analyse and compare costs and returns of predominant dairy farming systems in South Africa, Morocco, Uganda and Cameroon. Results show that, as farms grew larger in size, family resources (especially land and labour) became insufficient and there was need for their acquisition from external sources. Though extensive dairy farming systems had the lowest cost of milk production (<20 US-$ per 100 kg milk), their input productivities and milk yields were lower, leading to very low net cash returns from dairying. Large intensive farms in South Africa had relatively low costs (<30 US-$ per 100 kg milk) and a high Return on Investment (ROI) due to a higher efficiency of input utilisation. It was concluded that, intensification of dairy farming and simultaneously increasing the scale of production will greatly increase productivity of farm inputs, thus recommended for development of the dairy sector in African countries.     

Phylogeography of oribi antelope in South Africa: evolutionary versus anthropogenic panmixia

The increased rate of human-driven change is a major threat to biodiversity. Although there is sufficient evidence to suggest that species notably alter their ranges, facilitation of such movement for larger vertebrate species often places burdens on management agencies. Oribi antelope (Ourebia ourebi ourebi) in South Africa continue to experience dramatic decreases in range and numbers. Animals have and continue to be translocated for conservation, but also aesthetic and financial reasons. Initial translocations were done in the absence of any thought or understanding of genetic structure, while for the past two decades a conservative best-practice approach was adopted, but in the absence of any specific genetic information. Here, we use two mitochondrial and one nuclear fragment to report the phylogeographic structure in oribi antelope across South Africa. Our data indicate that the South African subspecies is distinct from other subspecies to the north, confirming that oribi in South Africa should be managed as a distinct conservation unit. Across the South African range, high genetic diversity is present with some evidence for genetic structure (phylogenetic trees and haplotype networks). However, there is no spatial component to the diversity (non-significant p-values in AMOVA analyses), possibly because of historic translocations. We evaluate translocation approaches currently in place, and make specific and general recommendations for future conservation management based on an improved understanding of population genetic diversity and genetic structure.     

Waterfowl abundance and diversity in relation to season,wetland characteristics and land-use in semi-arid South Africa

We studied waterfowl abundance and diversity in relation to season (wet vs dry), wetland characteristics (vegetation and morphometrics) and land-use in a semi-arid agricultural region of South Africa to determine how waterfowl respond to various wetland characteristics, particularly those of permanent agricultural ponds.Wetlands were visited during the wet (n = 215) and dry (n = 178) seasons of 1997 and species' abundances, and wetland and upland characteristics were recorded. Canonical correspondence analyses and multiple regressions determined which wetland and upland characteristics were most strongly associated with waterfowl density and species richness for both the wet and dry season. Overall, diving ducks were not abundant in the wet season, and were rare to absent in the dry season. Divers only responded positively to the characteristics of natural wetlands, including greater surface area, percent coverage of emergent vegetation, and high (ungrazed) shoreline vegetation. Of six species of dabbling ducks present during the wet season, occurrence of three co-varied with wetland and upland characteristics associated with agriculture, namely permanent water, and agricultural grains in the dry season. Being largely grazers, geese responded positively to the higher proportions of bare shoreline, characteristically surrounding agricultural ponds. Because only a few species associated with artificial waterbodies, natural wetlands should be conserved to protect waterfowl diversity in semi-arid South Africa.     

Movement patterns of Lichia amia (Teleostei: Carangidae): results from a long-term cooperative tagging project in South Africa

Understanding fish movement patterns and migrations is important for fisheries management as well as the identification and conservation of critical habitats. Data collected by the Oceanographic Research Institute's Cooperative Fish Tagging Project (ORI-CFTP) were used to describe the large-scale movement patterns of Lichia amia along the South African coastline. A total of 10 762 L. amia were tagged between 1984 and 2012, of which 744 (7%) were recaptured. Most tagging effort, mainly on juvenile and subadult individuals, took place along the south-eastern (i.e. Eastern Cape) and south-western (i.e. Western Cape) regions of the country during summer. Conversely, more L. amia were tagged and recaptured (mostly adults) during winter and spring (July to November) along the north-east coast (i.e. KwaZulu-Natal). Movements (dispersal distance in kilometres) by juveniles were restricted and largely confined to estuaries within the south-eastern and south-western regions of the country. There was a significant effect of fish size on distance moved (ANOVA: p<0.001), with evidence of a distinct seasonal (winter) longshore migration by adults to KwaZulu-Natal. The consequences of juvenile residency in estuarine habitats and high recapture rate of adults during a directed, seasonal spawning migration are discussed in light of improving current fisheries management.     

Noninvasive genetics provides insights into the population size and genetic diversity of an Amur tiger population in China

Understanding population size and genetic diversity is critical for effective conservation of endangered species. The Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) is the largest felid and a flagship species for wildlife conservation. Due to habitat loss and human activities, available habitat and population size are continuously shrinking. However, little is known about the true population size and genetic diversity of wild tiger populations in China. In this study, we collected 55 fecal samples and 1 hair sample to investigate the population size and genetic diversity of wild Amur tigers in Hunchun National Nature Reserve, Jilin Province, China. From the samples, we determined that 23 fecal samples and 1 hair sample were from 7 Amur tigers: 2 males, 4 females and 1 individual of unknown sex. Interestingly, 2 fecal samples that were presumed to be from tigers were from Amur leopards, highlighting the significant advantages of noninvasive genetics over traditional methods in studying rare and elusive animals. Analyses from this sample suggested that the genetic diversity of wild Amur tigers is much lower than that of Bengal tigers, consistent with previous findings. Furthermore, the genetic diversity of this Hunchun population in China was lower than that of the adjoining subpopulation in southwest Primorye Russia, likely due to sampling bias. Considering the small population size and relatively low genetic diversity, it is urgent to protect this endangered local subpopulation in China.     

Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in Hippopotamus amphibius from Kruger National Park,Republic of South Africa

Populations of Hippopotamus amphibius have declined throughout Africa in recent years, and are expected to decline further. An understanding of the population genetics of individual populations of hippos is necessary for effective management. To that end, we sequenced a portion of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region or D-loop from 37 H. amphibius, from six herds in the central region of Kruger National Park (KNP), Republic of South Africa. We amplified a 453 bp segment by PCR, and identified 21 polymorphic sites and seven haplotypes. All of these haplotypes are private alleles, not found in other populations of hippos from southern Africa. Overall nucleotide diversity (π) was 0.01739, and haplotype diversity (hd) was 0.8273, within the range observed in other parts of Africa. Mismatch analysis conformed more closely to a model of constant population size than either rapid demographic or spatial expansion. An analysis of molecular variance demonstrated no significant differentiation among herds, and Mantel tests showed no significant relationship between geographic and genetic distance among herds separated by up to 47 km (measured as Euclidean [x,y] distance) or 77 km (measured along rivers). Over this range, the population appears to be a single panmictic unit. A test of the hypothesis that calves are more likely to share a mtDNA haplotype with an adult female in the same herd than an adult female from a different herd was not significant.     

The national grazing strategy of the Republic of South Africa Objectives,achievements and future challenges

Over the past few years various measures have been applied to address the problem of the retrogression of southern African rangelands. However, it has become apparent that many of these measures were ad hoc and not part of a long‐term strategy aimed at fostering effective management of the rangeland resources. The White Paper on Agricultural Policy, tabled in May 1984, made reference to the alarming deterioration of natural rangelands and led to the drawing up of the National Grazing Strategy (NGS), released to Parliament in May 1985, which was endorsed by the Department of Agriculture and accepted in its entirety by the Government. The NGS committed authorities to reassess approaches to rangeland utilization in South Africa and to achieve a number of clearly‐defined goals within a specified time frame. The implementation of the NGS has been carefully monitored. Despite some progress, few of the goals set have actually been achieved. However, various problems have arisen such as the need to: encourage the cooperation of all range users, develop informed public opinion, increase manpower and establish priorities, all of which must be taken into account when future rangeland strategies are devised. These strategies also need to recognize the dichotomy that exists between programmes aimed at the development of certain industries and those aimed at resource conservation. It is proposed that future implementation of the NGS should be augmented by some of the following important second phase actions: (i) The strategy should be converted into a policy to be applied to all Departmental institutions, (ii) policy makers and politicians must accept liability and must take the lead in the application of stringent measures aimed at agricultural resource conservation and utilization.     

A review of over a decade of DNA barcoding in South Africa: a faunal perspective

For over a decade, molecular short standardised DNA fragments, termed DNA barcodes, have been developed for species discrimination around the world. As of 2010, the vast majority of barcoding research was biased toward particular taxonomic groups and geographic regions largely because researchers in developed countries were the ones with the resources and capacity to carry out such work. To rectify this, the International Barcode of Life Project was launched with the intent to extend the geographic and taxonomic coverage of the barcode reference library. South Africa committed to this mission in an attempt to catalogue all of its known biodiversity and, possibly, help identify new species. To date, approximately 48 000 South African faunal barcodes are housed in the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD), which represent only 2.3% of all known South African animal species. Although insects are the best represented in absolute terms, with over 37 000 samples recorded, they are still grossly lacking with just over 1% representation. Much like the global trend, there is a general taxonomic bias, with fish, birds and mammals showing the greatest representation. Moreover, geographic bias is also present, with the Free State province particularly under-represented on BOLD, likely owing to limited human capacity. Although few studies have been published with respect to barcoding, the majority reveal that the cytochrome c oxidase 1 (CO1) gene, used in isolation or in conjunction with other molecular markers, can greatly benefit South African biodiversity research. Several limitations of DNA barcoding are discussed and recommendations specific to South Africa provided.     

Fragmented populations of leopards in West-Central Africa: facing an uncertain future

During recent decades, most endangered species have suffered serious population declines. Little has been documented on leopards inWest-Central Africa and as a result the efficiency of protection measures and wildlife managing practices can be questioned. Using 416 occurrences of leopards, we investigated the relationship between different environmental factors and leopard distribution to establish a baseline distribution of this feline. Leopards are mainly present in two large populations: one in a forest habitat, the other in a savanna habitat. Leopard populations were found to be associated with lions and hyaenas but they avoided human disturbances. Regarding potential breeding dispersal, the Gaussian representation showed a clear fragmentation among populations, suggesting that long-term survival of the species could be threatened. We found no area to be exempt from threats. The leopard has, however, declined less than other carnivore species and still shows viable populations. Furthermore, occurrences were found to be significantly more numerous than expected in protected areas, suggesting the relative efficiency of conservation.     

Patterns of distribution and current protection status of the Carnivora,Chiroptera and Insectivora in South Africa

Geographic patterns of species richness and endemism in three mammalian orders (Chiroptera, Insectivora and Carnivora) were studied in relation to the biomes and existing protected areas of greater South Africa (including Lesotho and Swaziland). Locality data for 21500 specimens representing 124 species were analysed with a geographical information system. Species richness of Chiroptera is high in the savanna biome, particularly in the north-east of the country, owing to the marginal intrusion of 14 tropical species. Endemism in Chiroptera is low, however, with only two endemic species in the fynbos and Karoo biomes. The Carnivora display less biome specificity and endemism than the Chiroptera. Whereas the north-eastern savannas have the highest species richness, the transition between the Nama-Karoo and grassland biomes is an important southern African centre of endemism for the Carnivora, particularly the smaller species. In addition to being an important centre for species richness in the Carnivora and Chiroptera, the Kruger National Park is also particularly important for Red Dala Book species in both orders. The Insectivora display both high species richness and endemism. Species richness of the Insectivora is greatest in the mesic south-east of the country, whereas endemism is most pronounced in the forest and grassland biomes. Differences in biome specificity and endemism between these orders reflect not only phylogenetic divergence, but also variation in body size, vagility and life-history strategies. Most of South Africa's endemics are small mammals and many of them are listed in the Red Data Book. Distributions, life-history strategies and trends in man-induced habitat degradation were used to re-evaluale the protection status of the 124 species. We conclude that at least 11 endemic species are not adequately protected by existing publicly owned protected areas and consequently identify several areas which need to be added to the existing protected area system.     

The extent of grass species composition in Braklaagte,Zeerust District,North-West Province,South Africa

Grassland retrogression in tribal areas is evident. Long-term overgrazing by livestock plays an important role in grassland retrogression. Palatable species are the first to disappear and are then followed by the non-palatable species. Mismanagement and the incorrect grazing strategies by local farmers contribute to the problem. Vegetation in Braklaagte, in the Zeerust District is overgrazed and is a clear example of land degradation. Twelve target sites in Braklaagte were identified and the vegetation was compared with the vegetation in the nearby Madikwe Game Reserve that served as a benchmark reference.     

Application of crude and recombinant ELISAs and immunochromatographic test for serodiagnosis of animal trypanosomosis in the Umkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal province,South Africa

A total of 231 serum samples were collected from sheep (n=9), goats (n=99) and cattle (n=123) in northeastern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Trypanosome infection was detected using Trypanosoma brucei brucei crude antigen (TbbCA) and T. congolense crude antigen (TcoCA) ELISA assays. Recombinant antigen (T. evansi GM6 which consisted of 4 repeat domains, TeGM6-4r) ELISA and immunochromatographic test (ICT) were also used. Crude antigen ELISA, TeGM6-4r-ELISA and ICT detected 27.3%, 29% and 19.9% of trypanosome seropositive samples, respectively. Trypanosome infection prevalence in cattle and goats was 35.8–46.3% and 0–9.1%, respectively. Out of 9 sheep serum samples, 2–4 sera (22.2–44.4%) were positive. The detection performance of crude and recombinant antigen ELISAs was relatively similar (K=0.6–0.7); both are recommended for reference diagnosis and large scale epidemiological surveys. There is potential application for ICT in on-site diagnosis, but its sensitivity should be improved.