Mycosphaerella species occurring on Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens plantations of Tasmania,Australia

The genus Mycosphaerella Johanson contains many pathogens capable of causing a severe impact on the growth of susceptible eucalypt species. The lack of knowledge about which species are present in Tasmania and their potential risk to the plantation industry prompted this study into the Mycosphaerella species occurring on Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens plantations in Tasmania. A total of 36 plantation and five road verge sites of E. globulus and E. nitens were sampled. Five Mycosphaerella species and three species from associated anamorph genera were isolated and identified in Tasmania; Mycosphaerella nubilosa, Mycosphaerella cryptica, Mycosphaerella tasmaniensis, Mycosphaerella grandis, Mycosphaerella vespa, Coniothyrium ovatum, Sonderhenia eucalypticola and Sonderhenia eucalyptorum. The most frequently isolated species with the highest incidence and severity of infection were M. cryptica and M. nubilosa. These two species appear to have the greatest potential to damage juvenile eucalypt plantations in Tasmania. A link between Mycosphaerella vespa and Coniothyrium ovatum is described for the first time.     

Mycosphaerella species associated with leaf disease of Eucalyptus globulus in Ethiopia

Eucalyptus spp. are among the most widely planted exotic trees in Ethiopia. Several damaging leaf pathogens are known from Eucalyptus spp. worldwide. Of these, Mycosphaerella spp. are among the most important, causing the disease known as Mycosphaerella leaf disease (MLD). Characteristic symptoms of MLD include leaf spot, premature defoliation, shoot and twig dieback. Recent disease surveys conducted in Ethiopian Eucalyptus plantations have revealed disease symptoms similar to those caused by Mycosphaerella spp. These symptoms were restricted to E. globulus trees growing in several localities in south, south western and western Ethiopia. The aim of this study was to identify the fungi associated with this disease. This was achieved by examining ascospore germination patterns, anamorph associations and sequence data from the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA operon, for representative isolates. Several different ascospore germination patterns were observed, suggesting that more than one species of Mycosphaerella is responsible for MLD on E. globulus in Ethiopia. Analysis of sequence data showed that three Mycosphaerella spp., M. marksii, M. nubilosa and M. parva were present. This is the first report of these three species from Ethiopia and represents a valuable basis on which to build further studies in the region.     

Mycosphaerellaceae and Teratosphaeriaceae associated with Eucalyptus leaf diseases and stem cankers in Uruguay

Mycosphaerella leaf diseases represent one of the most important impediments to Eucalyptus plantation forestry. Yet they have been afforded little attention in Uruguay where these trees are an important resource for a growing pulp industry. The objective of this study was to identify species of Mycosphaerellaceae and Teratosphaeriaceae resulting from surveys in all major Eucalyptus growing areas of the country. Species identification was based on morphological characteristics and DNA sequence comparisons for the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region of the rDNA operon. A total of ten Mycosphaerellaceae and Teratosphaeriaceae were found associated with leaf spots and stem cankers on Eucalyptus. Of these, Mycosphaerella aurantia, M. heimii, M. lateralis, M. scytalidii, Pseudocercospora norchiensis, Teratosphaeria ohnowa and T. pluritubularis are newly recorded in Uruguay. This is also the first report of M. aurantia occurring outside of Australia, and the first record of P. norchiensis and T. pluritubularis in South America. New hosts were identified for Kirramyces gauchensis, M. aurantia, M. marksii, M. lateralis, M. scytalidii, P. norchiensis, T. molleriana, T. ohnowa and T. pluritubularis. Interestingly K. gauchensis, which has been known only as a stem pathogen, was isolated from leaf spots on E. maidenii and E. tereticornis. The large number of Mycosphaerellaceae and Teratosphaeriaceae occurring in Uruguay is disturbing and raises concerns regarding the introduction of new pathogens that could threaten not only Eucalyptus plantations but also native forests.     

A novel secondary metabolite from the Eucalyptus pathogen Mycosphaerella cryptica

The most abundant metabolite of the eucalyptus leaf spot pathogen Mycosphaerella cryptica was extracted from agar cultures. The structure of the compound was elucidated by detailed studies of NMR and MS data and by comparison with derivatives. The compound is a previously undescribed diphenylether structurally related to pannaric acid found in lichens. Culture extracts from another species of Mycosphaerella isolated from the same environment yielded 5‐hydroxymethylfuran‐3‐carboxylic acid, a furan acidic compound previously isolated from a basidiomycete fungus. Assays for bioactivity of these metabolites revealed no evidence for antimicrobial activity. Some phytotoxicity was seen on newly emerged leaves of Eucalyptus globulus, but not on juvenile or adult leaves, when treated with either metabolite.     

Estimation of drought-related limitations to mid-rotation aged plantation grown Eucalyptus globulus by phloem sap analysis

Previous research has shown that carbon isotope signatures (Δ¹³C) may correlate well with water status in 1–2 years old, plantation grown Eucalyptus globulus. Here we investigate this relationship for mid-rotation aged (5 years) trees and whether a simple field determination of phloem sugar concentrations is a reliable surrogate for Δ¹³C. We sampled six plantations covering much of the climatic range of E. globulus plantations in Australia (average annual rainfall 618–1094 mm). We found significant correlations between phloem Δ¹³C and phloem sugar concentrations across and within plantations. Both parameters were also correlated with a climate wetness index. We thus conclude that phloem sugar concentration is a useful surrogate for Δ¹³C and hence water status of mid-rotation E. globulus. We also observed strong correlations of phloem Δ¹³C and phloem sugar concentrations with growth across all plantations, providing some confirmation that water limits growth of E. globulus at a larger scale. This relationship was much weaker or absent within plantations, suggesting that factors other than water supply contribute significantly to growth limitations at smaller (within-plantation) scales.     

以芳香油和薪材为最终产品的桉树幼林地上部分生物量研究*

在2年生的桉树引种试验林内,对蓝桉和新引种的5种其他桉树的地上部分生物量进行了测定。研究发现,当轮伐期为2年时,不同桉树的芳香油和薪材收获量差异显著,而同一树种的芳香油和薪材产量在不同造林密度之间无显著差异。史密斯桉和贝克桉的芳香油和桉树脑含量均高于蓝桉,是生产桉树芳香油和薪材的优良树种,在我国亚热带地区有进一步试验和推广的价值。     

Optimal harvest scheduling in Eucalyptus plantations: A case study in Galicia (Spain)

This paper focuses on strategic management planning of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. plantations in Galicia (northwestern Spain). Several problems associated with the management of these plantations were identified first. Current management plans for plantations of this species consist of the systematic and somewhat arbitrary application of the area control method. Thus, these plans do not take into consideration the optimum length for one full plantation cycle that maximizes the land expectation value, neither do they formulate the area control method through any mathematical programming model for scheduling regeneration harvests. In this paper, we present a modelling approach based on linear and goal programming. The models consider area and volume control regulation strategies, and take into account variations in land productivity among site classes and successive rotation intervals. To illustrate this approach, we applied the models to a neighbourhood community-owned forest currently managed by the Regional Forest Service with a recent management plan. The results showed that the models provided more flexible harvest schedules, and the profitability of eucalypt stands was 64% higher than that under the current management plan. Finally, extensions to this study were identified.     

林龄对思茅松人工林根系生物量的影响

[目的]以云南省普洱市主要植被思茅松人工林为研究对象,探讨不同林龄思茅松人工林根系生物量的大小分布及变化特征。[方法]分别在5、8、15、25、36年生思茅松人工林内,利用内径为8.5 cm的根钻分3层(0~10、10~20、20~30 cm)获取思茅松与其它物种的细根、粗根及死根生物量数据。[结果]表明:随着思茅松人工林林龄的增长,思茅松细根生物量呈减少的趋势,而其它物种细根生物量呈增加趋势,细根生物量最大出现在36年生思茅松人工林。不同林龄思茅松人工林的思茅松粗根和死根生物量之间无显著差异,而其它物种及林分的粗根生物量和根系生物量则随林龄增长而增加。思茅松人工林的细根生物量主要分布在土壤深度0~10 cm内,其中,思茅松、其它物种、林分细根生物量以及根系生物量随土层深度的增加呈减少趋势。林龄和土壤深度对思茅松与其它物种的细根生物量有显著影响,林龄与土壤深度的交叉作用对思茅松细根生物量有显著影响,林龄对死根生物量有显著影响,林龄、土壤深度及林龄与土壤深度的交叉作用对粗根与根系的生物量有显著影响。[结论]思茅松人工林随着林龄增长,群落结构与树种组成随之发生变化,从而对根系生物量产生较大影响。     

桂西北秃杉人工林土壤肥力变化的研究

采用时空互换法,于广西南丹县山口林场选取不同林龄(9、14、20 a)的秃杉人工林作为研究对象,对其土壤物理性质、化学性质和生物化学性质(土壤酶活性)进行研究。结果表明:不同林分年龄土壤性质存在一定的差异,8、14、20 a秃杉人工林表层土壤(0 20 cm)土壤密度分别为0.978、0.914、0.890 g·cm^-3,总孔隙度分别为63.10%、65.53 %、66.40%,土壤最大持水量分别为64.55%、71.70%、74.58%。随着林龄的增长,土壤各化学和生物化学指标的变化不尽相同,但林分年龄到20年生时,多数土壤养分和酶活性指标都有所升高,土壤肥力状况得到提高。     

我国樟子松人工林天然更新研究进展

樟子松人工林天然更新问题的研究一直在进行,但人工林内幼苗数量过少及难以发育为幼树的问题一直难以彻底解决。文中综述了影响我国沙地樟子松人工林天然更新能力的因素,如光照、温度、水分、土壤环境、生物因子及人工营林技术等的研究概况。在研究过程中发现,樟子松人工林的遗传多样性与土壤微生物对樟子松人工林天然更新影响方面的研究尚少有报道,或可以为解决樟子松人工林天然更新问题提供更深入的思路。     

Effects of Mycosphaerella leaf disease on the spectral reflectance properties of juvenile Eucalyptus globulus foliage

Mycosphaerella leaf disease (MLD) can cause significant discoloration, necrosis and defoliation in commercial plantations of young Eucalyptus globulus. This study investigated the spectral reflectance changes that result in E. globulus foliage from Mycosphaerella infection. Spectral reflectance measurements were made on healthy and infected E. globulus foliage in the visible and near‐infrared wavelengths (400–1000 nm). Reflectance (R) at 760 nm produced the largest difference between the extremes of disease severity classes. The wavelength most sensitive to infection severity was R678 nm. Other sensitive wavelengths were located between 480 and 500 nm. The wavelengths near 708 and 550 nm appeared relatively insensitive to infection severity. The reflectance index best correlated to leaf infection was R678/R550 (r = 0.841, p < 0.0001). This index was used in a linear regression model for successfully predicting leaf infection levels from an independent data set (r = 0.95, p < 0.0001).     

Anatomical and histochemical defence responses induced in juvenile leaves of Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens by Mycosphaerella infection

The responses of juvenile leaves of two Eucalyptus species, with contrasting susceptibility to infection by Mycosphaerella leaf disease, were compared. The anatomical changes, accumulation of phenolics, suberin, lignin and anthocyanin and the retention of chlorophyll were studied in leaf lesions of varying developmental stages caused by species of Mycosphaerella. Enhanced resistance of Eucalyptus nitens in southern Australia was attributed to the formation of an effective lignified and suberized necrophylactic periderm, to restrict pathogen spread. Leaves of E. nitens contained isobilateral palisade which resulted in both abaxial and adaxial cell division and the initiation of a strong reinforced cellular zone from an early lesion stage. Eucalyptus globulus formed a slower, distorted necrophylactic periderm through hypertrophic changes to existing mesophyll and limited cell divisions of the single adaxial palisade layer. Deposits of lignin and suberin did not occur until later in lesion development, which were not effective in preventing further disease development. From this study it is hypothesized that tolerance of eucalypts to Mycosphaerella pathogens may be associated with constitutive mesophyll density.     

Evaluation of native tree species for the rehabilitation of deforested areas in a Mexican cloud forest

Four native tree species (Liquidambar styraciflua, Juglans pyriformis, Podocarpus matudae, and Carpinus caroliniana) were evaluated for their suitability in rehabilitating degraded areas of Mexican cloud forest. Plant survival and growth in height and diameter were determined in three mixed-experimental plantations with different land use histories; their performance was compared with two on-farm plantations started by landowners for forest restoration. Nearby forest fragments were controls for soil compaction. An experimental plantation with remnant trees had the highest plant survival (82%), height, basal diameter and relative growth rate. The plantation with the steepest slope had high plant survival (63%) and growth. The plantation characterized by dominance of grasses and compacted soils had the lowest survival (22%) and growth. On-farm plantations had good establishment of planted trees (5–10 species planted), and facilitated the recruitment of 9–11 woody species. Carpinus and Liquidambar appear to be suitable species for reforestation in all these areas. Podocarpus grew relatively slowly, although it performed well in two experimental sites. Juglans had high survival (76%) under the stressful conditions of the most adverse site, and therefore may be useful for rehabilitation of degraded sites. Differences among species and sites strongly suggest that species success depends on plantation site quality.     

Establishment and early growth of introduced indigenous tree species in typical plantations and shrubland in South China

Unsuccessful colonization by indigenous tree species into established plantations has retarded the succession of artificial plantations to more natural, secondary forests in South China. To understand how to improve colonization by seedlings of indigenous species, we determined how performance of indigenous seedlings is affected by seedling species (the shade-intolerant Castanopsis chinensis, the moderately shade-intolerant Michelia chapensis, and the shade-tolerant Psychotria rubra), the site into which the seedlings were transplanted (a mixed-legume plantation, a eucalyptus plantation, a mixed-native plantation, a mixed-conifer plantation, and a shrubland), and site preparation (removal or retention of understory vegetation and litter). Seedling survival and growth were generally increased by removal of understory vegetation and litter. C. chinensis and M. chapensis grew better in the mixed-legume and mixed-conifer plantations, while P. rubra grew better in mixed-native and mixed-conifer plantations. Responses of the transplanted seedlings to environmental factors were species specific. The effects of light on seedling survival and growth were correlated with the shade tolerance of the species. Soil moisture was important; it was positively correlated with survival but negatively correlated with growth of C. chinensis seedlings. Growth of C. chinensis and M. chapensis was positively correlated with soil potassium, while growth of P. rubra was positively correlated with soil organic matter but negatively correlated with soil hydrolyzed nitrogen. These findings suggest that we should select suitable native species under the different plantations before improvement of plantations. Light and soil moisture are most important environmental factors for the selection of species specific. Site preparation and fertilizer are needed during the improvement of those plantations.     

试论世界桉树栽培现状和我国桉树人工林发展策略

桉树是世界上热带、亚热带地区最重要的人工林树种之一,其面积已超过600万ha。文中着重介绍了巴西发展按树的经验,并提出了我国应采取的对策。     

广西大青山柚木人工林生长过程研究

[目的]研究柚木人工林生长过程及其与气象因子的相关性,为柚木抚育经营提供理论依据。[方法]以优良、中等和差3种生长类型的30余年生柚木人工林为对象,基于样地调查,选取优势木、平均木、被压木进行树干解析,对比分析其生长过程,应用灰色关联分析法揭示气象因子对柚木生长的影响。[结果]表明:3种生长类型林分柚木胸径、树高和材积生长过程基本一致,各分级木的生长过程亦相似,其胸径平均和连年生长量随年龄的增大呈先增加后逐渐降低的趋势,树高生长整体上呈下降趋势,材积生长则呈递增趋势。各优良林分的林木及各类型林分的优势木,其胸径、材积平均和连年生长量较大,速生期持续时间长,生长衰减慢,而其树高生长量的优势相对不明显;30余年生时柚木尚未达数量成熟龄。各类型林分间柚木生长与气象因子关系的差异仅体现在胸径,优良林分胸径连年生长量主要受极端低温影响,而中等和差林分则与年均降水量相关性最大;各分级木间柚木生长与气象因子的关系无明显差异;影响树高和材积连年生长量的最主要气象因子分别为年均降水量和年均气温。[结论]柚木各生长类型及分级木的生长过程整体趋势基本一致,其差异主要体现在生长量大小和快速生长期长短。约30年生柚木人工林仍未达到数量成熟,后期抚育经营对于其优质大径材高效培育仍不可忽视。     

萌生杉木林空间结构特征研究

利用结构参数角尺度、大小比数、混交度对浙江龙泉萌生杉木林的空间结构进行分析,结果表明:林分的平均角尺度为0.512,林分空间格局为随机分布;杉木树种分布格局为团状分布,木荷树种整体分布格局为随机分布,其它树种的整体分布格局为均匀分布;林分的平均混交度为0.438 4,在弱度混交和中度混交之间;林分中树种以胸径作为比较指标的林木个体的优势排列顺序为:苦槠、马尾松> 杉木> 樟树> 木荷> 枫香、红豆树> 拟赤杨> 榆树。根据萌生杉木林的结构特征提出经营对策, 通过合理择伐和补植乡土树种进行林分结构调整,提高林分质量,优化林分空间结构,以便更好地发挥其功能。     

Faunal use of bluegum ( Eucalyptus globulus ) plantations in southwestern Australia

We examined the faunal use of Eucalyptus globulus plantations in southern Western Australia, and compared use of remnant vegetation, agricultural land and plantations in different positions relative to large tracts of remnant vegetation. In general, faunal use of plantations is less than in comparison with adjacent remnant vegetation, but more than in open pasture. For all faunal groups there were almost twice as many species recorded in the native vegetation than in any site in the plantations or on agricultural land and they were in greater abundance. Faunal use of plantation edges and interiors did not show consistent patterns. Generally, edges next to remnants were most frequently used, but individual species showed a wide range of patterns of use across the various habitat types studied. More species of bird identified as being “at risk” were found in plantation edges than in interiors. Adjacency to remnant vegetation increased plantation use by some species, but the overall differences between isolated plantations and those adjacent to remnant vegetation were relatively small. We conclude that plantations provide some value in terms of habitat for some species, including some of conservation concern, but that this value is limited by the lack of habitat complexity in the intensively-managed plantations. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Stocks Under Plantations in Gambo District,Southern Ethiopia

The effect of six plantation species in comparison to natural forest (NF) on soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) stocks, depth-wise distribution, biomass carbon (C), and N was investigated on plantations and cultivated lands on an Andic paleudalf soil in Southern Ethiopia. The SOC, N, and bulk density were determined from samples taken in 4 replicates from 10-, 20-, 40-, 60-, and 100-cm depth under each site. Similarly, the biomass C and N of the plantation species and understory vegetation were also determined. The SOC and N were concentrated in the 0- to 10-cm depth and decreased progressively to the 1-m depth. Next to the NF, Juniperous procera accrued higher SOC and N in all depths than the corresponding plantations. No evidence of significant difference on SOC and N distribution among plantations was observed below the 10-cm depth with minor exceptions. The plantations accrue from 133.62 to 213.73 Mg ha^–1 or 59.1 to 94.5% SOC, 230.4 to 497.3 Mg ha^–1 or 6.9 to 14.9% TBC and 420.37 to 672.80 Mg ha^–1 or 12.5 to 20% total C-pool of that under the NF. The N stock under Juniperous procera was the highest, while the lowest was under Eucalyptus globulus and Cupressus lusitanica. We suggest that SOC and N sequestration can be enhanced through mixed cropping and because the performance of the native species Juniperous procera is encouraging, it should be planted to restock its habitat.     

广西大青山西南桦人工林土壤养分特征及其与立地生产力的关系

[目的]探讨西南桦人工林对土壤的适应性及土壤养分特征,揭示土壤养分状况与立地生产力的关系,为其造林地选择及人工林养分管理提供参考。[方法]在广西大青山林区西南桦人工林内设置47块600 m2的典型样地,调查常规测树因子,采集土壤样品,测定10项常规土壤化学性质指标;按照土壤养分分级标准评价土壤养分状况,基于立地指数将样地分为高产和低产组,进一步比较分析两组立地间各养分指标的差异性,探讨土壤养分对立地生产力的影响。[结果]表明:广西大青山西南桦人工林地土壤绝大部分为强酸性,有机质、有效N、全N含量中等偏上,有效P甚缺,其它养分含量中等偏下。高产和低产立地间土壤有机质和全K含量均呈极显著差异(P0.01),有效N含量差异显著(P0.05)。[结论]西南桦对于低pH值、低P含量的土壤具有较强的适应性;有机质、全K和有效N含量是影响广西大青山西南桦人工林立地指数的关键土壤养分因子。