Competitiveness, systems of innovation and the learning economy: the forest sector in Costa Rica

The different sectors of the economy, and the forest sector in particular, must create innovations in order to survive and to be competitive. Scientific knowledge should be introduced and institutionalized into the forest processes, but also knowledge derived from other sources such as user producer relationships and others should be incorporated. A new concept is emerging that considers that the economy should learn not only from the new scientific knowledge but also from the rest of the processes. This concept is National Systems of Innovation (created in 1985 in the Scandinavian countries), however, here the concept is broadened of a Sustainable System of Innovation. This approach of sustainable systems of innovation (SSI), considers that the sources for innovation towards development, particularly sustainable development, are formal organisations (universities, research centres, or so), the productive structure (the economy), the institutional set-up (patterns of behaviour), the economy–ecology relationships (potential and limitations of the ecosystem for production) and the policies of the sector. Each one of these factors interact and feed each other. They cannot be seen independently nor static; on the contrary, they are dynamic and evolutionary, without any doubt including the ecosystem. Then, the process of learning from all these sources, which is the base for SSI, may produce ‘greener’ innovations, greener technologies and greener institutions. Innovations related to forest services from Costa Rica will illustrate these ideas.     

Deforestation and forest restoration in Guanacaste,Costa Rica: Putting conservation policies in context

Traditionally Land Use Cover Change (LUCC) studies have focused on processes of negative land-cover change, primarily deforestation, partially because examples of positive land-cover change were not common. During the last two decades an outstanding tropical dry forest restoration process had taken place in the province of Guanacaste, Costa Rica, which has given us a unique opportunity to study how and why tropical dry forest regrowth occurs. The purpose of this paper is to undertake a retrospective analysis of the social dynamics of forest deforestation and restoration in Guanacaste from 1960 to 2005. Hence we investigate how structural drivers shape patterns of forest-cover change and examine how the role that Costa Rica's conservation policies had played in promoting forest restoration. Our study combined analyses of socioeconomic data and satellite images of forest cover. We showed that forest regrowth observed in Guanacaste after the 1980s was the result of multiple socioeconomic factors. Our results indicate that the degree of incentive provided by conservation policies such as Payment for Environmental Services are not enough to ensure that Guanacaste's forest will be protected against the potentially negative impacts of future socioeconomic changes. The findings from our analysis can assist decision-makers and managers in other regions to understand how social, economic and political dynamics impact the effectiveness of forest conservation efforts.     

Pure and mixed forest plantations with native species of the dry tropics of Costa Rica: a comparison of growth and productivity

In Costa Rica, most reforestation trials with native species were established in the tropical humid regions. In the dry tropics, research on the performance of native species in forest plantations is incipient and trials comparing pure and mixed designs are limited. This paper presents the results of two experimental plantations with native trees in pure and mixed plots in the dry tropics of Costa Rica. The growth and productivity of 13 native species in pure and mixed plantations was compared with Tectona grandis (L.f.) Lam., an exotic species broadly used in the region. In a plantation of relatively slower growing species, measurements taken at 68 months of age resulted in Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merril. and Dalbergia retusa Hemsl. demonstrating the best growth, followed by Astronium graveolens Jacq. and Swietenia macrophylla King. Measurements in a plantation of relatively faster growing species, at 68 months of age, showed that growth of Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) Blake was greatest in the pure and mixed plots, followed by Terminalia oblonga (Ruiz & Pav.) Steud., Anarcadium excelsum (Bert. & Balb. ex Kunth) Skeels and Pseudosamanea guachapele (Kunth) Harms. The native species grew better in the mixed plots. The pure plots of T. grandis (L.f.) Lam. were the most productive, compared to all species and the mixture of species. Plantations of T. grandis (L.f.) Lam. seem to be well adapted to the region and are certainly a commercially interesting alternative. Nevertheless, mixed plantations with native species would contribute more to sustainable management, because while single-species plantations do not provide a great range of goods and services when compared to the natural forest, mixed plantations are likely to increase this range of benefits.     

Forest policy and sustainable forest management in Bangladesh: an analysis from national and international perspectives

This paper includes a review of international sustainable forestry development followed by an analysis of forest policies in Bangladesh. There have been four different government forest policies in Bangladesh since 1894. The first two forest policies (1894 and 1955) were exploitative in nature. Most of the regulatory documents were developed during the first two policy periods. The third forest policy instituted in 1979 by the sovereign Bangladesh government had contradictory elements and mutually inconsistent policy statements. It addressed for the first time forestry extension through mass motivation campaign. Current forest policy formulated in 1994 has been considered to be the most elaborate policy in the history of the country. Under this policy, participatory social forestry has been institutionalized in Bangladesh. The analysis shows that, although it is possible to attain the stated policy targets, progress is slow and is blocked on several fronts. A number of identified technical, managerial and logistical problems are hindering policy and program implementation. In addition, corruption contributes to the observed problems. The real strength of Bangladesh forestry is locally based, participatory forestry, co-management of protected areas and highly motivated people who increasingly recognize the need for a healthy forest ecosystem that will provide future economic stability. Because it is the rich homestead forests of Bangladesh that generate the majority of commercial forestry products, it is important that education continues at the grass-roots level. In addition, educated forestry and environment professionals have been identified as the future driving forces towards better, and sustainable, forest management. Results of this study make it clear that Bangladesh and other developing countries are not presently in a position to accept and adopt internationally derived forest policies due to inadequate institutional support, political instability and poor governance. Therefore, along with development of criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management and forest certification, international policy scientists must consider institutional development, professional skill development, identification and adoption of indigenous technology and long-term financial support in developing countries. Without these, all international processes, policies and directives will be of little value and produce few substantive results.     

Implementing principles,criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in Gabon

Sustainable forest management is the process of managing forest to achieve one or more clearly specified objectives without diminishing the forest’s ability to continue providing goods and services in perpetuity. In this paper, we show how the African Timber Organization/International Tropical Timber Organization principles, criteria and indicators for the sustainable management of African forests can help timber companies assess their progress towards this goal in Gabon. Through a partnership between International Tropical Timber Organization project PD 124/01 Rev. 2(M), the World Wildlife Fund, and the ministry responsible for forests in Gabon, audits were conducted between 2012 and 2014 to evaluate the implementation of sustainable forest management in 14 forest concessions in Gabon. In general, results show that Principle 4, linked to the well-being of workers and local populations, proved the most difficult principle to implement, while Principle 3, dealing with maintaining ecological functions, was the least problematic. A number of companies were found to be experiencing significant difficulties in implementing management plans. It is also clear that independent forest certification has become a key element for ensuring the successful implementation of sustainable forest management.     

Factors affecting runoff and soil erosion: plot-level soil loss monitoring for assessing sustainability of forest management

The assessment on key ecological factors affecting runoff and soil erosion and the usefulness of plot-level monitoring of soil erosion was conducted by collecting runoff and soil loss records from 14 runoff plots. The runoff plots were set up in two catchments in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, where conventional logging and Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) took place. Runoff plots were set up in forest areas with different levels of logging disturbances, i.e. harvesting areas (four plots), skid trails (six plots), and undisturbed/control areas (four plots). The magnitude of runoff and soil loss from skid trail plots were found to be the highest, followed by control plots and harvest plots. Canopy cover, sapling density, litter depth and woody debris appeared to be important ecological factors that determine the magnitude of soil loss. Tree canopy determines the size and erosive power of the raindrops. Sapling, litter layer, and woody debris protected soil surface, thus preventing soil detachment, and provided surface roughness that minimised soil particle movement down the slope. The roles of these ecological factors were less significant compared to rainfall in determining the magnitude of runoff.

Canopy cover, sapling density, litter depth and woody debris can be measured quantitatively or qualitatively without complicated equipment and methods. Furthermore, they are sensitive to logging disturbance which make them suitable verifiers of soil erosion. Forest managers need to limit disturbance to these factors in order to minimise soil erosion in their logging operation areas. Monitoring of soil loss using runoff plots was cost-effective and provided valuable information about soil erosion risks caused by logging operations. Runoff plots clearly demonstrated site disturbances where the plots are located. Monitoring allowed more direct linkages to be made between management practices and their impacts on runoff and soil erosion, thereby enabling forest managers to identify problems and take appropriate preventive measures to improve their management practices.     

The science/policy interface in logic-based evaluation of forest ecosystem sustainability

Numerous efforts around the world are underway to apply the Montreal criteria and indicators to assess the sustainability of temperate and boreal forests. In this paper, we describe a logic-based system for evaluating the sustainability of forests at regional and national levels. We believe that such a system can make evaluation of sustainability more consistent and transparent. This effort also makes two points abundantly clear: (1) a systematic way to organize expert judgment about ecological, economic, social and institutional relationships (here, using ‘fuzzy logic’) is crucial to building such a system and (2) that the structure of this logic-based system reflects a policy framework and a series of decisions about values and what is meant by ‘sustainability’.     

黑龙江省经营单位水平森林可持续经营标准与指标的研究

建立了黑龙江省经营单位水平上的森林可持续经营标准和指标体系，并与相关的标准与指标体系进行了比较。指标体系由总目标层、目标层、类目指标层和项目指标层4个层次构成，包括资源、生态环境、经济和社会等4个目标、9个标准和31个单项指标。     

A criteria and indicator prognosis for sustainable forest management assessments: Concepts and optional policy baskets for the high forest zone in Ghana

ABSTRACT

This article establishes principles conveyed by criteria and indicators as a useful tool for measuring progress made toward sustainable forest management (SFM). Pedagogically, the conceptual construction raises questions on the following topics: (a) the various management practices and policies that exist in the high forest zone, (b) how criteria and indicators for assessments are selected, and (c) how progress made toward SFM is measured. Performance scores are established for indicators identified within the three sectors (forest ecosystems, forest communities, and the economy) for sustainability assessment. Measuring progress toward SFM operations are quantitatively performed with estimated maximum and minimum thresholds levels at which resource-use would be sustained using the Measure of Forest Resource-Use Sustainability Scale (MoFRUSS). The outcome of the measurement operations, as depicted by MoFRUSS, reveals the actual extent to which stakeholder’s initiatives toward sustainable forest management has progressed and in which direction it is moving. It also offers optional policy baskets for resource management interventions from which the socio-eco economic bundle is recommended if the forestry sector of Ghana’s Vision 2020 (sustainable development) is to be achieved with improved societal well-being, improved environmental health and vitality, and improved economic growth and development.     

Progress towards more uniform assessment and reporting of soil disturbance for operations, research, and sustainability protocols

International protocols, such as those of the Montreal Process (MP), specify desired outcomes without specifying the process and components required to attain those outcomes. We suggest that the process and its components are critical to achieve desired outcomes. We discuss recent progress in northwestern North America, on three topics that will facilitate development of and reporting in sustainability protocols: (1) common terms and comparable guidelines for soil disturbance, (2) cost-effective techniques for monitoring and assessing soil disturbance, and (3) improved methods to rate soils for risk of detrimental soil disturbance. Uniform terms for soil disturbance will facilitate reporting and exchange of information. Reliable monitoring techniques and tracking the consequences of soil disturbance for forest growth and hydrology are paramount for improving understanding and predictions of the practical consequences of forest practices. To track consequences, we urge creation of regional research and operations databases that can be used to: (1) address MP values, (2) define detrimental soil disturbances, (3) develop risk rating systems for operational application, and (4) improve best management practices (BMPs) and ameliorative treatments that avoid or correct detrimental disturbances.     

Impacts of participatory forest management on forest conditions: Evidences from Gebradima Forest,southwest Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

This study examines a participatory forest management program and its impacts on forest conditions in Gebradima Forest, southwest Ethiopia. Vegetation data were collected from both participatory forest management (PFM) and nonparticipatory forest management (non-PFM) forest blocks. A total of 54 plots (27 from each forest block) measuring 20 m × 20 m were employed to collect species composition and structural data. Results indicated that a total of 51 different woody plant species (49 at PFM and 43 at non-PFM blocks), representing 31 families were recorded, with 41 species were shared for both forest sites. Species diversity and evenness were higher in the forest with PFM (H´ = 3.29, E = .85) compared to the forest without PFM (H´ = 2.97, E = .79). The overall mean values of tree/shrub and seedling density per hectare, diameter class (≤ 20 cm) were also significantly (p < .05) higher in PFM forest than non-PFM forests. However, no significant variations were observed in sapling density per hectare and basal area between the two studied forest blocks. It can be concluded that PFM had a positive effect on forest conditions compared with a similar forest without PFM. Hence, it is important to scaling up PFM in neighboring forests.     

基于森林生态美学理论的城市森林建设与管理

生态美学、森林生态美学以当代生态存在论哲学为其理论基础,将生态学的重要观点吸收到美学之中,以人与自然的关系为题材,强调了人与自然的协调和谐、共生共存。将森林生态美学理论应用到城市森林建设与管理实践中,在城市环境向森林化方向发展的进程中,实现城市森林从绿化层面向生态层面的提升,是城市森林建设与管理的新课题,是实现人与自然和谐的新要求。       

Comparing different forest zoning options for landscape-scale management of the boreal forest: Possible benefits of the TRIAD

Forest management has been criticised in the last 20 years for its negative impact on the native species, structures and functions of the forest. Of many possible alternatives proposed to minimize these effects, the functional zoning (or TRIAD) approach is gaining popularity in North America. The goal of this approach is to minimize the negative environmental impacts of forestry while maintain timber supply by dividing the forest into three broad land-use zones: (1) conservation, (2) ecosystem management, and (3) wood production. In this study, we used a spatially explicit landscape model to simulate the effects of fire and six different forest management scenarios on a boreal mixedwood forest management unit in central Quebec. The management scenarios examined included the current practices scenario, a scenario proposed by the provincial government, and four TRIAD scenarios varying in the amount of forest allocated to each of the three zones. For each scenario, we examined the harvest volume, percentage old-growth forest or old forest managed to favour old-growth attributes, and effective mesh size of forest patches by 20-year age classes. With more area set aside for conservation and high-retention partial cut harvesting techniques designed to maintain the attributes of old-growth stands, all TRIAD scenarios resulted in higher percentages of stands with old-growth attributes than the current practices scenario and the government proposed scenario, and two of the four TRIAD scenarios also resulted in higher harvest volume over the long term. All forest management scenarios resulted in significantly lower effective mesh size than the fire-only scenario, but this difference was not as pronounced for the four TRIAD scenarios as for the current practice and government proposed scenarios. We conclude that the TRIAD approach has the potential to minimize some of the negative impacts of forestry on the landscape, while maintaining timber supply over the long term.     

Modelling the long-term impacts of selective logging on genetic diversity and demographic structure of four tropical tree species in the Amazon forest

In the last three decades, Amazon tropical forests have experienced high rates of deforestation, both by clearing for agriculture and by logging. In this study, we use computer simulations to examine the potential effects of forest logging on genetic diversity and demographic recovery (basal area development) of four neotropical tree species over a time frame reflecting multiple logging events. The study species, Bagassa guianensis Aubl., Hymenaea courbaril L., Manilkara huberi (Ducke) Chevalier, and Symphonia globulifera L.f., are all taxa which are commonly exploited for timber in the Brazilian Amazon. The simulations were parameterized using empirical data from field studies in the Tapajós National Forest, Pará State, Brazil, including genotypes at microsatellite loci, demography, ecology and growth for each species. Eight scenarios, combining two different cutting cycles and two minimum cutting diameters, were examined for each of the four species. The scenarios represent the actual forest practices used in Brazil and French Guiana (cutting diameter 45 and 60 cm, and cutting cycle of 30 and 65 years, respectively). Logging scenarios were applied for six cutting cycles, and final genetic and demographic data were compared to baseline data from corresponding control scenarios. At the end of the simulated period the basal area was strongly reduced under all conditions in B. guianensis, H. courbaril, and M. huberi. In only two scenarios was a species able to recover its basal area following logging (S. globulifera with both 45- and 60-cm cutting diameters under a 65-year cutting cycle). In the logging scenarios, all species showed a loss of alleles and genotypes and an increased genetic distance (calculated between each population at the start and the end of the simulations). These effects were higher under the most intensive logging cycles (30 years, 45 cm). However, effective number of alleles, expected and observed heterozygosities, and the fixation index were little affected by the logging simulations. Over all, we conclude that, even under very optimistic conditions for growth and recruitment, current logging practices are not sustainable in terms of basal area. Our simulations show that different species respond differently to logging, both demographically and genetically. No single set of logging parameters can be applied to the forest as a whole. Rather, forest management practices must be species-specific, taking into account not only growth parameters but also ecological and reproductive variables, in order to move toward long-term forest sustainability.     

Comparison of sustainable forest management (SFM) trends at global and country levels: case study in Iran

Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) is an integral component of sustainable development. Iran is a Near East country with low forest cover. Iran uses 7 criteria and 65 indicators for regional and national monitoring of forest management. We evaluated the status of SFM in Iran, and a location imaging in its path towards SFM was provided by existing validation data and library references for the Criteria and Indicators (C&I) adopted in the Near East, We identify challenges and opportunities associated with SFM in Iran. Although the information to evaluate the trend of SFM in Iran was incomplete, we compiled some information on the basis of C&I. Comparison of some indicators with the values for the rest of the world revealed that the situation in Iran is very different. Although some indicators revealed a better situation in Iran, Iran lags the rest of the world in the implementation of SFM. Iran, like many countries, is trying hard to find ways to sustainably use its forests. Not all C&I for assessment of SFM in Iran have been determined or defined. However, a consistent and comprehensive framework of criteria and indicators to monitor progress towards SFM is being applied. Defining some C&I is still at an early stage.     

Understorey condition scoring of Ghanaian lowland tropical moist forest during stock survey: a technique for regulating the allowable cut in ecologically and structurally degraded production forest

Understorey condition scoring is a rapid assessment field technique for appraising and delimiting the various stages of ecological and structural decline in fire-degraded, lowland, tropical moist forest. The scoring system is designed to be incorporated into stock survey. It is simple and consistent, with only minimal time and labour requirements. The degree of degradation is assessed from the vegetation structure contained within the first 2 m of the stand's vertical profile and is assigned to one of six categories. Sample plots of 20 m radius are used to distinguish localised, degraded areas from natural forest chablis and a high sampling intensity is employed to enable accurate mapping of the forest condition. Establishing the spatial extent and degree of degradation facilitates a more appropriate determination of the allowable cut at the sub-compartmental level, thereby affording protection to affected areas of forest against further ecological and structural deterioration. In addition, the system can be used for long-term condition monitoring and targeting dry-season fire-control operations.     

Species composition, similarity and diversity in three successional stages of a seasonally dry tropical forest

The objectives of this study were to describe the floristic composition, species diversity, similarity and richness among three stages of forest regeneration, and to investigate the influence of the previous land use on species composition in a seasonally dry tropical forest in northwestern Costa Rica. The species diversity and richness of woody stems with diameter greater or equal to 5 cm in 26 0.1 ha plots was found to be the greatest in the intermediate stage followed by the late and early stages. The structural changes of this chronosequence of successional stages were quantified with a modification of the Holdridge complexity index. Using satellite imagery for site selection and historical ground truth analysis the influence of past land use and the frequency of anthropogenic disturbances on species composition was illustrated.     

建立与集体林权制度改革相适应的光泽县森林经营和森林防火新机制

通过分析光泽县集体林权制度改革后的林业现状和问题,探索闽北林区森林经营管理和森林防火新机制,提出新时期森林经营的总体目标是构建巩固林权制度改革成果的五大配套体系(资源培育和管理体系、森林集约化经营和管理体系、林业科技和技术服务体系、森林防火体系、森林病虫害防治体系)。     

Multiple-use forest management in consideration of climate change and the interests of stakeholder groups

In this study, the overall utility of forest management alternatives at the forest management unit level is evaluated with regard to multi-purpose and multi-user settings by a multi-criteria analysis (MCA) method. The MCA is based on an additive utility model. The relative importance of partial objectives of forest management (carbon sequestration, ground water recharge, biodiversity, and timber production) is defined in cooperation with stakeholders. The forest growth model 4C (Forest Ecosystems in a Changing Environment) is used to simulate the impact of six forest management strategies and climate on forest functions. Two climate change scenarios represent uncertainties with regard to future climatic conditions. The study is based on actual forest conditions in the Kleinsee management unit in east Germany, which is dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and oak (Quercus robur L. and Quercus petraea Liebl.) stands. First, there is an analysis of the impact of climate and forest management on forest functions. Climate change increases carbon sequestration and income from timber production due to increased stand productivity. Secondly, the overall utility of the management strategies is compared under the priority settings of different stakeholder groups. From an ecological perspective, a conservation strategy would be preferable under all climate scenarios, but the business as usual management would also fit the expectations under the current climate due to high biodiversity and carbon sequestration in the forest ecosystem. In contrast, a forest manager in public-owned forests or a private forest owner would prefer a management strategy with an intermediate thinning intensity and a high share of pine stands to enhance income from timber production while maintaining the other forest functions.