Evaluation of antibiotics for racing pigeons (Columba livia var. domestica) available in The Netherlands

Antibiotics and chemotherapeutics marketed for use in racing pigeons (Columba livia var. domestica) were evaluated by comparing the dosages and indications given by the manufacturers with the data obtained by pharmacokinetic, bacteriological and efficacy studies. This comparison showed that only three of the recommended dosages and indications of the 60 formulations marketed in The Netherlands are scientifically sound and in accordance with the literature. It is to be expected that the majority of the antimicrobials for pigeons will not satisfy the requirements for final registration as a pigeon therapeutic under the Dutch Veterinary Medicines Act of 1985. Several factors affecting drug availability are discussed, such as the different routes of administration and the influence of food. The public health aspects of the consumption of medicated pigeons is also discussed. Although there is no legislation with regard to this subject, a recommended withdrawal time of 10 days for the majority of the antimicrobials seems advisable.     

Evaluation of anthelmintics, antiprotozoal drugs and ectoparasiticides for racing pigeons (Columba livia var. domestica) available in The Netherlands

Anthelmintics, antiprotozoal drugs and ectoparasiticides specially marketed for use in racing pigeons (Columba livia var. domestica) were evaluated by comparing dosages and indications given by the producers with data obtained from efficacy studies or empirical data. Of a total of 63 products, 59% were in accordance with the literature. Fifty-nine percent of the dosages and indications of anthelmintics were in accordance with scientifically obtained data, while for trichomonacides, coccidiostats and ectoparasiticides the figures were 47%, 59% and 100% respectively. Public health aspects of the consumption of medicated pigeons are discussed.     

Health status of free-living pigeons (Columba livia domestica) in the city of Ljubljana

In the year 2000 an epidemiological research was undertaken on the health status of free-living pigeons in the city of Ljubljana, Slovenia. A total of 139 pigeons were captured and examined for the most common bacterial, viral, and parasitic diseases. Serum samples, oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs as well as samples of droppings and feathers were taken from the captured birds. Antibodies to paramyxovirus type 1 were found in 84.2% of the sera examined, and 23.7% of birds were serologically positive to Chlamydophila psittaci. Antibodies to avian influenza virus were not detected. Salmonella spp. were isolated from 5.7% of the cloacal swabs. Trichomonas gallinae was clinically suspected and then microscopically confirmed using oropharyngeal swabs in 7.9% of examined birds. Eimeria spp. was identified in 71.9%, Capillaria sp. in 26.6% and Ascaridia columbae in 4.3% of droppings samples examined. Of the ectoparasites, Columbicola columbae and Campanulotes bidentatus compar were found.     

Parasites of domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) in Sebele, Gaborone, Botswana

The following parasites were found in apparently healthy pigeons kept in Sebele: a haemoprotozoan, Haemoproteus columbae (80%); endoparasite metazoan nematodes, Ascaridia columbae (30%) and Dispharynx spiralis (10%); a cestode, Raillietina sp. (80%) and coccidian oocysts (40%); 2 ectoparasites, namely the pigeon fly, Pseudolynchia canariensis (50%) and the louse, Columbicola columbae (30%). The pigeons also had highantibody titres, (1:256) to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (100%). The latter infection in these domestic pigeons has public health implications.     

The influence of stress from transport and handling on hematologic and clinical chemistry blood parameters of racing pigeons (Columba livia domestica)

In the present study, the influence of stress from handling and transport on some frequently examined blood parameters of racing pigeons was evaluated. After 3 hr, there was a highly significant (P < 0.01) increase in the number as well as in the percentage of heterophils and decrease of lymphocytes. In clinical chemistries, increases of creatine kinase and glucose and a decrease of uric acid were observed. There was a mean decrease of the total white blood count of >15% that was less significant (P < 0.05). Changes in lactate dehydrogenase, basophils, and monocytes did not prove to be significant; eosinophils, aspartate aminotransferase, total protein, and the packed cell volume were not influenced by stress.     

Occurrence of parasitic invasions in domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) in the Northern Poland

Considering the dynamic development of domestic pigeons breeding in Poland, working out preventive programs for this species of birds becomes necessary. Preventive programs should be elaborated based on epizootic situation in a particular area and should be adapted to it. The aim of the present study was to evaluate of the occurrence of parasitic invasions in domestic pigeons in the Northern Poland. In years 2005/2006, 55 lofts of carrier pigeons and 11 lofts of fancy pigeons were examined. One hundred and three individual dropping samples collected during pigeon exhibitions were also investigated. The study revealed that 56.4% of carrier pigeons lofts and 90.9% of fancy pigeons lofts were infected by coccidia. Ascaridia (A.) columbae was found in 5.5% lofts of carrier and 15.5% of fancy pigeons on the exhibitions. Eggs of Capillaria (C.) obsignata were found in 3.6% carrier pigeons and in 36.4% fancy pigeons lofts. Trichomonas columbae were observed in 61.8% of carrier pigeons and in 100% of fancy pigeons lofts.     

Helminth parasites of domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) in Sebele, Gaborone, Botswana

Twelve adult domestic pigeons from Sebele, Gaborone, Botswana, were examined for the presence of helminth parasites. The cestode genus Raillietina and two species of nematodes, Dispharynx spiralis and Ascaridia columbae were recovered. Most pigeons (75 %) were infected with Raillietina spp. often in concurrence with A. columbae.     

Quantitative renal scintigraphy in domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) exposed to toxic doses of gentamicin

OBJECTIVE: To standardize techniques for renal scintigraphy in birds, to use scintigraphy to assess gentamicin nephrotoxicosis in birds, to compare nuclear medicine assessments with histologic assessment of gentamicin nephrotoxicosis and serum uric acid concentrations, and to determine the radiopharmaceutical that best quantifies avian renal function. ANIMALS: 12 domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica). PROCEDURE: Serum uric acid concentrations were determined for all birds. Renal scintigraphy techniques that used technetium-m99 (99mTc)-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA; 4 hours after injection) and 99mTc-diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA; 15-minute dynamic study) were evaluated in all birds. Renal biopsy specimens were collected following baseline scans. Number and size of renal tubule granules positive for periodic acid-Schiff stain were scored for severity (scale of 0 to 4). Nephrotoxicosis was induced by administration of gentamicin. Serum uric acid concentrations were measured, and 99mTc-DMSA and 99mTc-DTPA scans were repeated after gentamicin administration. Birds were euthanatized, and complete necropsies were performed. RESULTS: Standard avian renal scintigraphy techniques were developed for 99mTc-DMSA and 99mTc-DTPA. Decreased renal radiopharmaceutical uptake for 99mTc-DMSA and 99mTc-DTPA indicated nephrotoxicosis. Cloacal accumulation of 99mTc-DTPA was significantly decreased after administration of gentamicin. Histologic grading of renal tissue before and after gentamicin administration confirmed nephrotoxicosis. Inconsistent serum uric acid concentrations could not be used to assess nephrotoxicosis. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Renal nuclear scintigraphy is a useful, noninvasive means to determine renal function in birds. Although 99mTc-DMSA may prove useful in the evaluation of renal morphology, Tc-DTPA is the radiopharmaceutical agent of choice for the assessment of renal function in avian species.     

Experimental inoculation of pigeons (Columba livia) with Mycobacterium bovis

The purpose of this pilot study was to determine if pigeons (Columba livia) are susceptible to infection with Mycobacterium bovis by either oral or intratracheal inoculation and to assess their possible role in the lateral transmission of bovine tuberculosis. Six pigeons were orally inoculated with 1.3 x 10(5) colony-forming units of M. bovis, six pigeons were intratracheally inoculated with the same dose, and six pigeons served as noninoculated controls. The study continued for 90 days postinoculation (PI), with groups of birds necropsied at 30-day intervals, and fecal samples and tissues were collected for mycobacterial culture. Two pigeons, one intratracheally inoculated and one orally inoculated, shed M. bovis in their feces at 1 day PI, and one intratracheally inoculated bird shed M. bovis in its feces 60 days PI. Whereas no illness or weight loss was present during the course of the study, 2 of 12 inoculated birds exhibited microscopic lesions of mycobacteriosis, and the organism was isolated from tissues of three inoculated birds. Pigeons are susceptible to infection with M. bovis after high dose inoculation and can shed the organism in their feces for up to 60 days PI; intratracheally inoculated birds appear more likely to become active fecal shedders of M. bovis. Although these were high dose inoculations under experimental conditions, pigeons may potentially play a role in the lateral transmission of bovine tuberculosis between infected and uninfected mammalian hosts.     

Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of erythromycin in pigeons (Columba livia)

Tissue and plasma concentrations were determined after intravenous and oral administration of erythromycin to pigeons to establish the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of the drug. A short mean half-life of elimination of 0.9 h was found. The relative bioavailability after direct crop administration of erythromycin thiocyanate or erythromycin ethylsuccinate at a dosage rate of 100 mg/kg was less than 10%. At a drug concentration in drinking water of 1 g/l, erythromycin plasma levels were barely detectable, whilst lung and trachea concentrations reached a maximum of 1.6 micrograms/ml. Even after crop administration of 100-mg/kg erythromycin thiocyanate, low plasma levels were obtained, whilst lung and trachea concentrations were substantially higher. Prescribed drinking-water regimens seemed unable to yield therapeutic tissue concentrations. Only individual crop administration seemed an appropriate medication method. The use of erythromycin ethylsuccinate did not present any advantage in comparison with erythromycin thiocyanate.     

Echocardiographic examinations in unsedated racing pigeons (Columbia livia forma domestica) with special consideration for the physical training

The heart of the bird is characterized by its enormous efficiency. Racing pigeons are bred for a long time for their flight performance. In the present study therefore the heart of 108 racing pigeons of the breed Bricoux were examined by means of echocardiography. The birds were either kept in aviaries (untrained) or as racing birds. The aim was to find out whether differences in the heart dimensions and/or the heart work occur between untrained and trained birds, like it is described already in humans and mammals (so-called athletic's heart). Significant differences between the two groups could be determined with different parameters, in particular with parameters, which affect the heart work. Thus it was for the first time possible to prove the formation of a athletic's heart in birds, and by that the adaptation of the avian heart to appropriate performance requirements.     

Unusual biphasic disease in domestic pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) following experimental infection with Sarcocystis calchasi

A novel Sarcocystis species has recently been reported in the domestic pigeon (Columba livia f. domestica) as intermediate host, causing severe central nervous signs similar to Paramyxovirus-1 or Salmonella Typhimurium var. cop. infection. Transmission of the parasite via the northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) as definitive host has been established. Experimental infection of domestic pigeons with sporocysts excreted by experimentally infected northern goshawks reproduced the natural infection in the pigeon, proving the causative role of the parasite in the disease. Here, we describe in greater detail the course of the fulminant biphasic disease depending on the infectious dose. Pigeons infected with 10(3) or 10(4) sporocysts showed clinical signs of polyuria and apathy around 10-11 days postinfection (dpi) and sudden neurological signs 51-57 dpi as a second phase of disease. Pigeons infected with higher doses died within 7-12 dpi, also showing polyuria and apathy but without nervous signs. At necropsy, livers and spleens had multifocal necroses and infestations with parasitic stages, namely, schizonts. Moreover, lesions and schizonts were also found in the lung, bone marrow, and next to blood vessels in the connective tissue of various organs. Pigeons infected with 102 sporocysts remained symptomless until 58-65 dpi, when sudden central nervous signs occurred. Major histopathologic findings of pigeons with neurological signs were encephalitis and myositis of virtually every skeletal muscle with high infestations of sarcocysts. Only mild myocarditis and very few cysts were found in the heart muscles. Importantly, a sentinel pigeon developed identical lesions when compared to those of low-dose infected pigeons, suggesting a risk of mechanical transmission of sporocysts from freshly infected to uninfected pigeons in a flock. By contrast, chickens failed to develop any clinical signs or pathologic lesions in the same experiment. The findings further characterize the new highly pathogenic disease in domestic pigeons, which clinically mimics paramyxovirosis and salmonellosis in both phases of the disease and exclude chickens as further intermediate host species.     

Outbreak of avian mycobacteriosis in a flock of two-year-old domestic pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica)

This report describes an outbreak of avian mycobacteriosis in a flock of 100 two-yr-old pigeons. Over a 6-mo period, the sick pigeons showed cachexia followed by death. In Columbiformes classic tubercles rarely develop, but in these affected pigeons granulomatous nodular lesions of various sizes, containing numerous acid-fast bacilli, were found in the internal organs. The lesions were observed in the liver, spleen, intestine, bone marrow, ovary, and oviduct. Despite their breeding age, atrophy was also found in the ovary and oviduct. Microorganisms belonging to Mycobacterium avium complex were identified in the affected tissues by polymerase chain reaction.     

Paramyxovirus-1 in feral pigeons (Columba livia) in Ontario

Paramyxovirus-1 (PMV-1) infection was diagnosed in racing pigeons in Ontario during 1985, but it was not until January 1989, that the virus was isolated from feral pigeons (Columba livia) in this province. During an 18 month period beginning January 1988, a total of 43 feral pigeons was submitted to the Wildlife Diseases Laboratory, Pathology Department, Ontario Veterinary College. A history of neurological signs accompanied most of the birds. Tissues from 29 birds were submitted for PMV-1 isolation. Allantoic inoculation of embryonated chicken eggs yielded PMV-1 in 10 of the pigeons submitted. On the basis of histological criteria, we believe that 12 other birds were also infected with PMV-1.

Gross pathological changes were unremarkable. Lymphplasmacytic interstitial nephritis was observed histologically in all birds from which PMV-1 was isolated. Other lesions seen, in decreasing frequency of occurrence, were lymphoplasmacytic interstitial hepatitis and multifocal hepatic necrosis, lymphoplasmacytic interstitial pancreatitis, nonsuppurative encephalitis and myelitis.

The existence of PMV-1 in feral pigeons poses a potential threat to the poultry population since there is ample opportunity for mingling with poultry under open housing management. There is also a concern that pigeons may harbor the virus, perhaps in the kidney, and become chronic carriers and potential long-term disseminators of the disease.

     

Safety and efficacy of clavulanate-potentiated amoxycillin in pigeons (Columba livia)

Pigeons treated orally with 125 mg clavulanate-potentiated amoxycillin for seven days showed no adverse reactions. The drug had a marked depressive effect on the faecal flora but this had returned to normal 10 days after cessation of treatment. When administered to pigeons with an experimental Staphylococcus aureus infection of the feet no clinical response was apparent and there was no evidence of a diminution in the inflammatory process.     

Pharmacokinetics and anthelmintic efficacy of febantel in the racing pigeon (Columba livia)

This paper reports on the pharmacokinetics and the efficacy of febantel against Capillaria obsignata and Ascaridia columbae in the racing pigeon. Febantel was rapidly cleared from the circulation and highly metabolized. The efficacy of febantel against Capillaria and Ascaridia was studied on lightly and heavily infected pigeons. The efficacy against Ascaridia was 100% for the faecal egg count reduction (FECR) as well as for the worm reduction in all treated pigeons. After two treatments with febantel against Capillaria in heavily infected pigeons the FECR amounted to 96.7% and worm reduction was 95%. In order to effectively remove both parasites from the host, repeated treatments with febantel at a short interval could be the treatment of choice.